Jan Herczyński

У цій публікації представлені поглиблені огляди недавніх реформ
національних систем оплати праці вчителів трьох країн регіону, Польщі, Литви та Естонії, порівняльний огляд та висновки для українських реформаторів. Огляди демонструють політичний та інституційний контекст, а також конкретні рішення, прийняті в різних країнах, зокрема окрему роль директорів шкіл, засновників шкіл та уряду у визначенні заробітної плати кожного вчителя.

Книга написана для українських політиків, експертів та реформаторів у галузях управління, фінансування та децентралізації освіти.

This publication presents in-depth reviews of recent reforms of national
systems of teacher remuneration in three countries in the region, Poland,
Lithuania, and Estonia, together with a comparative review and lessons
learned for Ukrainian reformers. The reviews discuss the political and
institutional context as well as the specific solutions adopted in different
countries, in particular the separate roles of school directors, school founders and the national government in determining the salary of every teacher.

The book is written for Ukrainian politicians, experts, and reformers in
the sphere of education management, education finance, and education
decentralization.

After a decade of severe fiscal crisis also impacting education, Greece is looking ahead. Now is the time to invest effectively in education and define a forward-looking path for Greece. Building on the current reform agenda, this report offers an analysis of the context and underlying policy issues that once addressed, can contribute to raising the quality and equity of education in Greece.

Drawing on evidence and international experience, the review highlights policy options that can guide and enhance current reform efforts in Greece in four areas: effective governance; policies for school improvement; efficiency, equity and quality of the education system; tertiary education. How can the governance and financing of Greek education be streamlined and improved? How can Greece achieve greater equity in educational provision and student outcomes? How can the Greek - qualified and well engaged - teaching force help promote school improvement? Last but not least, how can higher education help Greece restore prosperity?

This report takes a hard look at the above issues, and many others. It will offer precious insights to policy makers and the education community.

Nie jest zamiarem autorów raportu gloryfikowanie rozwiązań przyjętych w Polsce, ale raczej ukazanie ich specyfiki i uwarunkowań, które przyczyniły się do ich obecnego kształtu. W odniesieniu do każ- dego omawianego elementu systemu edukacji podjęto próbę zidentyfikowania zarówno mocnych stron, jak niedoskonałości wynikających z pomyłek reformatorów lub konieczności dochodzenia do rozwiązań kompromisowych. Kształt instytucjonalny polskiego systemu oświaty nie jest ustalony „raz na zawsze” i będzie z pewnością podlegał dalszym zmianom. Być może analizy zawarte w niniej- szym raporcie będą przydatne dla przyszłych reformatorów oświaty w Polsce, a także decydentów w innych krajach, chcących korzystać z polskich osiągnięć i uniknąć polskich błędów.

Executive Summary

The primary and secondary education system in Kazakhstan has accomplished significant achievements. It has managed to reach almost universal access to primary and secondary education, and few differences are observed in enrolment by geographical location, socio-economic background and gender. Although the level of education attainment of the population is high, the performance of Kazakh 15 year-olds in PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) 2012 suggests that there is considerable room to improve the quality of student learning outcomes. In mathematics, Kazakh students are on average two years behind their peers in OECD countries and about 45% of them are low performers, a proportion significantly above the OECD average (23%). The language of instruction in schools, school location, and the socioeconomic background of students and schools make a difference in student performance. National and international assessments also suggest marked differences in educational outcomes between urban and rural areas.

Kazakhstan has embarked on profound reforms to improve the quality of the education system and is increasingly looking to international standards and best practices. Reform initiatives include the expansion of the pre-primary education network, the development of new mechanisms of school financing (including a new per capita funding scheme), the creation of resource centres to support small-class schools, further investment in school infrastructure and a wider use of information technologies in schools. In this context of reforms, while there is an apparent desire to increase resources devoted to education and awareness that spending per student remains markedly lower than the OECD average and that of other neighbouring countries, there remains an official reluctance to expand public expenditure on education which is linked to concerns about both the sector’s efficiency and its absorptive capacity. This report analyses the effectiveness of the Kazakh school system and identifies policy areas with potential efficiency gains or requiring further public investment. The following policy priorities were identified to improve the effectiveness of resource use in the Kazakh school system.

Kazakhstan underinvests in education in comparison with other countries with similar income. The lack of adequate resources is reflected at a range of levels such as low enrolment rates in pre-primary education; poorly remunerated teachers; overcrowded urban schools; and poorly equipped small-class schools. At the same time, there is considerable scope for a more efficient management of resources in areas such as the school network and the teaching workforce. A gradual increase in public spending is needed to meet the ambitions set out in the sector’s strategic documents. Additional resources should be prioritised where these can have the greatest impact: early educational years and support to low performing and disadvantaged schools.

Achieving considerable efficiency gains and ensuring that additional resources are well-spent, however, would require changes in governance structures. There is a need to strengthen the capacity to effectively manage and monitor the use of resources across all levels. In particular, insufficient local and school autonomy hinders effectiveness of resource use. Schools and rayons have little flexibility to invest more in human resources (by increasing staffing levels or by raising teacher salaries) if these are more acutely needed, or alternatively to invest in physical resources (school buildings, school equipment such as smart boards), if the present ones are insufficient or outdated. In addition, local and regional governments have very little spending discretion as norms determine how resources should be allocated and intergovernmental transfers have a very limited equalisation effect. A gradual increase of autonomy coupled with accountability and capacity building mechanisms could enable a more effective use of resources at the local and school level.

The distribution of resources to schools is currently decided on a discretionary and incremental basis by rayons in consideration of national norms but steps have been taken towards the development of a per-student school funding scheme. This is a positive move as a well-designed funding formula can, under certain conditions, be the most efficient, equitable, stable and transparent method of funding schools. Before national roll-out, the formula could be refined to take greater account of students' needs, capture better differences in class size across the country and increase its simplicity.

A wide-ranging review of school network organisation could shed light on potential expansions or downsizings of school facilities in light of demographic trends. A vision for the provision of education in rural areas could be developed to improve the quality, equity and efficiency of the large number of small-class schools, which are a result of a policy to ensure universal access to compulsory schooling. Kazakhstan should sustain the efforts to remove three-shift schools and explore ways to minimise the impact of doubleshift schools on younger students. There is also a need to adjust the norms for instructional hours to be more in line with OECD averages for official instructional time, particularly for students in grades 1-4. Having a relatively short school day, in terms of hours of instruction, may place children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds and those who may be struggling, at risk of failure.

More and more, the focus needs to shift towards providing education that promotes equity by recognising and meeting different educational needs. There is no systematic policy to support students who are falling behind. There is little provision of early support to avoid that students fall behind, with personalised and intensive intervention. A greater focus on addressing underperformance is needed in Kazakhstan. Ensuring that schools provide their students with adequate and timely support is essential to enable struggling students not only to stay at school but to get the most of their schooling years. Schools should be encouraged to use early warning systems to identify students at risk and support them as early as possible. This is in contrast with the overemphasis placed on top performing students. Also, schools in Kazakhstan appear to be making slow progress in accommodating children with disabilities.

There is scope to strengthen the quality of teachers and school leaders. Professional standards could be developed to clarify expectations of what systems of initial education and professional development should aim to achieve, serve as a framework for the selection of candidates in recruitment processes, offer the credible reference for making judgements about their competence, guide professional development, and provide the basis for career advancement. Initial teacher education and professional development opportunities could be reviewed to ensure that these provide a solid foundation for teachers and adequately respond to their needs. In the case of school leaders, improvements in their recruitment, professional development and appraisal are needed to tap on their potential role in leading school improvement.

There is an imperative need to reconsider the number of staff and their remuneration. Current student-teacher ratios indicate that there might be some oversupply of teachers in the system. Increasing student-teacher ratios and class sizes could free up resources to further invest in teachers' professionalisation and remuneration. Also, the conception of teacher employment, whereby basic compensation is associated uniquely to the teacher’s teaching load (stavka system), is a source of concern as it does not appropriately recognise the many tasks a teacher accomplishes beyond teaching and reduces his or her engagement in school activities. As a result, teacher employment needs to be reconceptualised and the stavka system should be discontinued. The objective is to raise the professionalism of teachers, which can also be supported by better and more restricted selection into the profession and possibly fewer teachers with better salaries.

Kazakhstan recognises the importance of teacher and school evaluation but there is scope to strike a better balance between the currently prevailing accountability function and the improvement one. Clearly, there needs to be a stronger emphasis on teacher and school evaluation for development purposes where evaluation results lead to genuine professional discussions about effective teaching and teachers and schools receive advice for the improvement of pedagogical practices. There is ample room to improve the external and independent monitoring systems of Kazakhstan’s education system. The current monitoring approach is compliance-driven and entails no analysis of educational performance. As such, it is limited in the way it evaluates efficiency, equity, and value for money. An external independent monitoring system for school resource use should be a priority. External and independent bodies would strengthen the analysis of the ample data generated by existing monitoring systems. Enhancing the transparency and reporting framework is also likely to help reduce the opportunities for misallocation of resources and corruption that exist throughout the system, although a complementary policy to reduce loopholes in the system of norms is also needed.

In 1999, as a result of reforms of the education system, a new type of lower secondary school, called gymnasium, was introduced in Poland. The main objectives of introducing the gymnasium were to equalize the educational opportunities of rural youth, improve the level of education and extend general education by one year. The reformers envisioned gymnasiums as an autonomous school, located in new, well-equipped buildings, or as schools functioning alongside existing secondary schools. After 16 years of operation, four structural models of gymnasiums evolved: autonomous gymnasium, aggregate gymnasium in a complex with a primary school, gymnasium in a complex with a primary school having the same catchment area, and gymnasium with upper secondary school. The article investigates the differences in the organisational characteristics for each model of gymnasium, educational outcomes from different types of school, and their geographic distribution. Results show that even though gymnasiums in a complex with an upper secondary school attain on average the best results on the gymnasium completion exam, the highest scores in teaching effectiveness are achieved by gymnasiums in complexes with a primary school having the same catchment area.

W 1999 r. w wyniku reformy systemu oświaty wprowadzono w Polsce nowy typ szkoły powszechnej – gimnazjum. Głównym celem wprowadzenia gimnazjów było wyrównanie szans edukacyjnych młodzieży wiejskiej, podniesienie poziomu kształcenia oraz przedłużenie o rok powszechnego nauczania. Gimnazja w zamyśle reformatorów miały być samodzielnymi szkołami w nowych, dobrze wyposażonych budynkach
lub szkołami funkcjonującymi przy istniejących liceach ogólnokształcących. Po 16 latach funkcjonowania nowego typu szkoły wykształciły się cztery typy ustrojowe gimnazjum: gimnazjum samodzielne, gimnazjum zbiorcze w zespole ze szkołą podstawową, gimnazjum w zespole ze wspólno obwodową szkołą podstawową i gimnazjum ze szkołą ponadgimnazjalną. W artykule analizujemy różnice między sposobami organizacji poszczególnych modeli gimnazjum, wyniki edukacyjne uczniów do nich uczęszczających oraz zróżnicowanie przestrzenne występowania modeli. Wyniki pokazują, że chociaż gimnazja funkcjonujące przy szkołach ponadgimnazjalnych mają średnio najlepsze wyniki egzaminu gimnazjalnego, najwyższą efektywność nauczania osiągają gimnazja w zespołach ze wspólno-obwodowymi szkołami podstawowymi.

The purpose of this study was to identify the main steps and actors in a successful strategy formulation, implementation and monitoring as well as systemic bottlenecks to define success factors for developing VET strategies at the regional level in Poland, with the focus on initial VET (iVET). Based on initial review of existing strategic efforts across all the regions in Poland and scoping interviews at the central level, three regions were selected for in-depth analysis: Dolnośląskie, Małopolskie, and Pomorskie. The fieldwork phase consisted of 20 semi-structured individual interviews (IDIs) conducted in each of the three selected regions. Interviewees included Regional Operational Programme Managing Authorities, representatives of local governments and central institutions at the regional level, iVET school directors and employers.

Between March and June 2001, the Education Finance Team of the LARGIS Program analyzed the way the City of Lviv and its rayons allocate funds to schools.  The purpose of this work was to help the City define financial policies for the sector that would facilitate its educational goals. During the same period, the Team helped five schools undertake self-assessment procedures through stakeholder surveys and public meetings. The purpose of this work was to help these schools better define and address their problems, and to lay the foundation stones for eventually linking the city’s financial policies with the action plans of schools. This report summarizes work in both areas.

Financial Analysis

To conduct the financial analysis, the Team developed indicators, measures, and statistical procedures for the examination of school budgets and program hours. The analysis showed that:

a) National government funding is insufficient to cover the teaching hours and programmatic standards mandated by the Ministry of Education.

b) The provision of additional funds by the city makes it possible for most schools to teach the program hours called for in the "state plan", but not the additional facultative hours that are also supposed to be funded by the national government.

c) The City sets its education budget equal to the funding promised by the national government, despite the fact that it knows that it will have to contribute significant additional funds at the end of the year.

d) Deficit budgeting has created a bargaining regime between schools, rayons, the city, and the oblast for additional education funds.

e) Bargaining has led to disproportions in per pupil funding across schools and to haphazard and uncontrolled reductions in the services that schools purchase with those funds (program hours, split hours, class sizes).

f) The City has no policy with respect to standardizing either per pupil spending or the services that this spending buys across schools.

Based on these findings, the Team made the following recommendations:

a) The City end deficit budgeting and agree ex ante to contribute a realistic sum to the education subvention provided by the national government.

b) The City equalize per pupil funding for school tasks across rayons (starting with normal schools), and rayons should use the indicators and measures developed by the Team to begin to equalize per pupil funding across schools.

c) The City should immediately analyze and develop similar measures and indicators for the budgets of preschool and non-school tasks in order to pursue similar efforts at standardizing costs and services.

d) The City use its "experimental status" for education with the national government to win a reduction in the number of hours in the state plan. This would give school directors more programmatic flexibility within existing financial constraints.

These recommendations have been accepted by the City’s Education Department and the, using the measures, indicators and statistical procedures developed by the Team, the  Department has begun to work towards implementing them for FY 2002.

School Self-Assessment

Prior to the work of the Education Team in Lviv, the City had decided to evaluate the performance of its schools. To this end, it translated a school self-assessment instrument developed in Poland. This instrument was then administered in three schools by the staff of the City's Methodical Center. The staff however, did not fully understand the difference between a self-assessment instrument designed to help teachers, parents and students identify and act on the problems of their communities, and an instrument of external control or evaluation. Not surprisingly, school directors either objected to the use of the instrument or colluded with parents and teachers to produce favorable results. To remedy this situation, the Team provided training and support to the City and to schools in the proper use of the instrument. This involved:

a) Training independent survey administrators and discussing the purpose of the instrument with school directors, the City's education department, and the of the Methodical Center

b) Administering the instrument in five schools and preparing reports and presentations for each of them.

c) Training the staff of the Methodical center in interpreting survey results and facilitating school meeting.

d) Presenting these reports to parents, teachers and pupils at each school and helping them constitute working groups to develop action plans to address the most pressing problems identified through the surveys.

The level of constructive social engagement demonstrated by parents, teachers, and pupils surprised school directors and the City has decided to:

a) To systematically encourage self-assessment across the city's schools.

b) To make clear to all participants that the goal of the process is not external control, but the self-identification and resolution of school problems.

c) To give preference to schools that engage in the process to additional city funds for teacher retraining.

On the morning of the 21st century, it is clear that knowledge, not physical labor, has become the driving force behind economic growth and increasingly rapid social change. More and more people will work with their heads, and more and more physical production will be carried out by the congealed products of past mental labor. What we know, how we learn, and how we learn from learning, will play an ever-larger role in determining our individual and collective life chances.

The major social challenge of Poland's current "transformation" or "transition" is thus fundamentally the same as the challenge facing other industrial societies entering the "information age".  It is just more extreme. More extreme still, the farther one moves out from Poland's major urban areas. Indeed, while urban Poland seems to be clearly, if still uncertainly, moving towards the 21st century, rural Poland, with its small and archaic farms, its still frequently grinding poverty and unemployment, and its poorly educated population, increasingly shows signs of being left farther and farther behind.

This divide is fraught with profound social, economic and political dangers. And it must be prevented from widening if Poland is to meet the immediate challenge of European integration as well as the larger challenge posed by increasingly rapid, knowledge-driven socio-economic change. In short, Poland must begin to take make serious efforts to improve the capacity of its rural population to absorb, use, and transform knowledge. These efforts will require sustained public investment in Poland's educational system, a wide social commitment to lifelong learning, and continual reflection by the national government, local governments, and private and public organizations of all shapes and sizes.

Raport o wykształceniu i przygotowaniu zawodowym Polaków powstał z inicjatywy i na zamówienie Państwowej Agencji Inwestycji Zagranicznych. Jego celem miała być możliwie najbogatsza, chociaż zwięźle podana, informacja o kwalifikacjach Polaków i podstawowych cechach procesu kształcenia w Polsce. Na temat edukacji powstało wiele opracowań, których liczbę dodatkowo zwiększyło zainteresowanie wywołane podjętą reformą edukacji. Nie zmieniło to jednak faktu obecności zróżnicowanych opinii na temat poziomu wykształcenia i umiejętności rodaków. Autorzy mając tego świadomość zabrali się do opracowania raportu z przekonaniem o potrzebie zbadania wielu mniej znanych aspektów edukacji i sformułowania bardziej zobiektywizowanych i odpowiedzialnych ocen w oparciu o dane, co do których wartości nie byłoby większych zastrzeżeń, aczkolwiek dość skromnych. Informacja statystyczna jest ciągle uboga, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do systemu pozaszkolnego i efektów kształcenia.
W raporcie znajdzie Czytelnik krótką historię zmian edukacyjnych i poziomu wykształcenia, zarysowaną reformę edukacji oraz wiele informacji o aktywności edukacyjnej; zarówno w systemie szkolnym jak i poza nim, w Polsce i za granicą, w systemie publicznym i prywatnym, na każdym poziomie kształcenia i z uwzględnieniem jego podstawowych kierunków. Będzie mógł zapoznać się z wynikami analizy popytu na pracę według zawodów i skali niedostosowania doń systemu kształcenia zawodowego. Zainteresowanie wzbudzą zapewne informacje o popycie na pracę Polaków za granicą i podana skala migracji zarobkowych.
Mimo tak wielu zebranych informacji i przeanalizowanych danych, Czytelnik nie znajdzie w raporcie dostatecznego rozpoznania trzech istotnych aspektów polskiej edukacji. Po pierwsze nie znajdzie próby jakościowej oceny wykształcenia Polaków. Nie ma bowiem do tego
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podstaw badawczych. Nie wiadomo, w jakim stopniu na przykład wysiłek uczenia się języków obcych owocuje dobrą praktyczną znajomością języka angielskiego, niemieckiego czy francuskiego. Podobnie, nie wiadomo jak ocenić poziom kształcenia w szkołach zawodowych mimo świadomości, że absolwenci niektórych z tych szkół często zasilają szeregi bezrobotnych. W tym przypadku potrzebne byłyby specjalne badania, które są kosztowne i trudne metodologicznie. Po drugie Czytelnik nie znajdzie w raporcie żadnych prognoz ani przewidywań co do przyszłego stanu dopasowania wykształcenia zawodowego Polaków do wyzwań nowoczesnego demokratycznego społeczeństwa. Zmiany w polskiej oświacie i szkolnictwie wyższym oraz zmiany na rynku pracy zachodzą bardzo szybko i nawet zrobienie dobrej diagnozy okazuje się zadaniem niełatwym. Po trzecie uboga jest informacja w przekroju regionalnym i lokalnym. Wynika to z ograniczonej reprezentatywności badań statystycznych w przekroju wojewódzkim, a tym bardziej powiatowym. W ślad za reformą samorządu terytorialnego oraz decentralizacji administracji państwa nastąpi zapewne dostosowanie sprawozdawczości statystycznej oraz wprowadzone zostaną różne systemy monitorowania działań, ale wymaga to jeszcze pewnego upływu czasu.
Autorzy raportu skorzystali z dostępnych baz danych GUS, Ministerstwa Edukacji, Ministerstwa Pracy i Polityki Społecznej oraz Krajowego Urzędu Pracy, Rządowego Centrum Badań Strategicznych, Eurostatu i OECD, a także z informacji zawartych w literaturze przedmiotu. Jednak wiele informacji zostało zebranych w pojedynczych instytucjach, dzięki zrozumieniu dla wykonywanej pracy i życzliwości pracowników tych instytucji. Autorzy chcieliby podziękować osobom, które gotowe były poświęcić swój czas i podzielić się swoją wiedzą, a W szczególności: pani dyrektor Joannie Rozwadowskiej z MEN za pomoc w uzyskaniu pewnej orientacji w zawiłościach polskiego prawa oświatowego oraz panu dyrektorowi Januszowi Twardowskiemu z Centrum Obliczeniowego MEN za udostępnienie wielu nie wykorzystanych wcześniej danych statystycznych, pani P. Wesołowskiej z Mazowieckiego Kuratorium Oświaty i Wychowania, która na nasza prośbę zebrała informację o szkołach dwujęzycznych szkół dwujęzycznych, państwu z Naczelnej Organizacji Technicznej, Stowarzyszenia Księgowych i Polskiego Towarzystwa Ekonomicznego za przekazanie materiałów o działalności szkoleniowej, kierownictwu Instytutu Goethego, Instytutu Francuskiego oraz British Council za statystyki dotyczące nauczania języków obcych w ramach ich działalności, a także ambasadzie amerykańskiej za pomoc w zebraniu danych o polskich studentach w USA. Nie możemy zapomnieć także o pomocy koleżanki dr Kathariny Mueller za informacje o studentach Europejskiego Uniwersytetu w Viadrinie.
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Mamy nadzieję, że przygotowany raport zyska uznanie Czytelników, chociaż autorzy maja świadomość, jak wielu odbiorców nie znajdzie wszystkich potrzebnych im informacji.
System edukacji i kwalifikacje społeczeństwa wymagają systematycznych badań. Dzięki nim nie tylko nasza wiedza będzie bogatsza, ale i działania znajdą więcej uargumentowanych przesłanek.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) brings host countries capital, productive facilities and technology transfers, as well as new jobs and management expertise. Thus it is important to understand why in many countries FDI inflow is lower than expected. The goal of this study is to explore some important factors determining flow of FDI into transition countries. In particular, we analyze the legal environment for FDI in some transition economies. Then we model the impact of stability of the economic and legal environment on the pattern of FDI. Our analysis shows that (i) higher variability of basic macroeconomic fundamentals reduces the flow of FDI, (ii) high volatility of fiscal and business regulations makes the inflow of FDI smaller, and (iii) macroeconomic and legal instability leads to adverse selection of the investors. Based on theoretical findings we formulate a clear message to policy makers stating that in order to expect significant flow of long term and non-speculative foreign capital, first of all, a stable economic and institutional environment is needed.

In 1999, as a result of reforms of the education system, a new type of lower secondary school, called gymnasium, was introduced in Poland. The main objectives of introducing the gymnasium were to equalize the educational opportunities of rural youth, improve the level of education and extend general education by one year. The reformers envisioned gymnasiums as an autonomous school, located in new, well-equipped buildings, or as schools functioning alongside existing secondary schools. After 16 years of operation, four structural models of gymnasiums evolved: autonomous gymnasium, aggregate gymnasium in a complex with a primary school, gymnasium in a complex with a primary school having the same catchment area, and gymnasium with upper secondary school. The article investigates the differences in the organisational characteristics for each model of gymnasium, educational outcomes from different types of school, and their geographic distribution. Results show that even though gymnasiums in a complex with an upper secondary school attain on average the best results on the gymnasium completion exam, the highest scores in teaching effectiveness are achieved by gymnasiums in complexes with a primary school having the same catchment area.