Ancient Weights

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In an industry where products, in this case gem materials, are traded and valued by their weight, it is critical to fully understand the multitude of units out there, especially if interpreting antique or foreign descriptions, and how weights should be expressed according to the best trade practices.

Marktgewichte gehören zu den kleinformatigen Objekten des alltäglichen Lebens, die beim Handel auf der Agora, in den Läden usw. zum Abwiegen von (trockenen) Waren benötigt wurden. Tausende von ihnen wurden in den griechischen Poleis rund ums Mittelmeer und an der Küste des Schwarzen Meeres gefunden. Obwohl die meisten von ihnen in klassisch-hellenistischer Zeit aus Blei hergestellt wurden, gibt es eine beachtliche Anzahl (mehrere Hundert) von griechischen Marktgewichten aus Bronze. In der Forschung werden die bronzenen Exemplare oftmals als Standard- oder Eichgewichte interpretiert, die den städtischen Magistraten, d. h. meist den Agoranomoi oder Metronomoi, als Kontrollinstrumente für die Marktgewichte dienten.
Diese Interpretation soll im Vortrag überprüft werden. Dazu sollen zunächst die archaischen Gewichtsfunde aus Athen vorgestellt werden. Es handelt sich dabei um ein halbes Dutzend von Gewichten, die aus Bronze gefertigt sind, deren Fundorte (Agora und Akropolis) auf eine öffentliche Nutzung hinweisen und die durch ihre Inschrift (Δεμόσιον Ἀθεναίον) als öffentliches Eigentum der Athener ausgewiesen sind.
Diesen unstrittig als Standardgewichte gedeuteten Exemplaren aus Athen sollen Bronzegewichte aus anderen Städten gegenübergestellt werden. So finden sich hier einige wenige Poleis und Heiligtümer (wie Olbia und Olympia), die ausschließlich Bronzegewichte ausgegeben haben und die damit offenbar lokale Besonderheiten darstellen. Darüber hinaus sind Bronzegewichte aus rund 20 weiteren Poleis überliefert, stets in geringer Stückzahl. Die große Mehrheit an Gewichten dieser Poleis ist aus Blei gefertigt, wobei sich die Einzelstücke aus Bronze ikonographisch und epigraphisch nicht von den bleiernen Pendants unterscheiden, wie sie dies für Athen gezeigt werden kann. Da diese also nicht ohne Weiteres als Standardgewichte gedeutet werden können, ist die Gleichsetzung von Bronzegewicht = Standardgewicht neu zu überdenken. Um diese vereinzelten Bronzegewichte zu erklären, sollen auch die Überlieferungslage und die lokalen Metallressourcen in die Betrachtung einbezogen werden. Ziel des Vortrages ist es, den Begriff „Standardgewicht“ – auch in Abgrenzung zu Normal- oder Eichgewicht – eindeutig zu definieren.

The Tollense valley in northeast Germany is well known for its substantial evidence indicating a violent conflict dated to the early 13th century BC (Period III of the Nordic Bronze Age). This article presents a significant new find from a later Bronze Age context, found in the river at a known Bronze Age valley crossing (site Weltzin 13) by Ronald Borgwardt in 2020. The small bronze figurine (14.7 cm tall) has an egg-shaped head with a prominent nose, looped arms, a neckring, two knobs signifying breasts, a belt, an indication of a female sex and two slightly differently shaped legs. In the 19th century a similar female statuette was found near the village of Klein Zastrow, just a few kilometres from the valley crossing, but mostly these figurines are known from Zealand and Scania. Belts are only present on the statuettes from Zealand and northern Germany, and their presence suggests a close connection between the figures from these areas. Typological evidence places the figure fro...

This paper examines the indications of weight engraved on the amphorae found in northern Italy and the corresponding weighting procedures. The engraved inscription (graffito) is an alternative to the painted inscription but is only occasionally adopted. However the transmitted informations are precious because well testifies, often as the only evidence, both the use or reuse of the vessels, the operations performed and the marketing systems employed. This is, for example, the case of the common wine produced between the Late Republican and the Early Imperial time, widely distributed and consumed also in Rome. Together with graffiti on amphorae this paper examines, with particular attention to the Adriatic area, also the weighting procedures used to his trade (weights, balances or steelyards) and the actions taken to adopt official instruments of measure to prevent frauds.

Il contributo prende in considerazione le indicazioni di peso graffite sulle anfore rinvenute in Nord Italia e le corrispondenti modalità di pesatura. L’iscrizione graffita rappresenta un’alternativa all’iscrizione dipinta, adottata però solo occasionalmente. Le informazioni trasmesse sono tuttavia preziose poiché ben documentano, spesso come unica testimonianza, sia l’uso o il riutilizzo dei contenitori, che le operazioni svolte e i sistemi di commercializzazione adottati. E’ questo ad esempio il caso del vino comune prodotto tra tarda età repubblicana e prima età imperiale, ampiamente diffuso e consumato anche nell’Urbe. Insieme alle iscrizioni graffite su anfora sono stati presi in considerazione, con particolare riferimento all’area adriatica, anche le modalità di pesatura legate al loro commercio (pesi, bilance o stadere) e i provvedimenti adottati per istituire misure campione e prevenire le frodi.

"Volume measurement by photogrammetry. Applications for the weighing metrology studies", 1st International Conference on Metrology for Archaeology, Benevento, Italy, October 22-23, 2015, volume 1, p. 197-202.
http://www.metroarcheo.com/files/MetroArcheo2015_Proceedings.pdf
The fieldwork of the weighing metrology studies faces issues concerning the conservation of the artefact. More specifically for the European Protohistory, for which the metrological standards and systems are not identified by the texts, the weights studies leave out the broken ones, difficult to integrate.
The method presented here is intended to remedy this issue proposing a way to calculate the volume of an object with a non-intrusive measurement and permitting later a numerical restitution of the morphology and mass of the original object.

This book is the first in-depth history of the U.S. Customary System to appear in almost 200 years. In addition to a wealth of historical information difficult to find elsewhere, an appendix provides a uniquely detailed set of data proving that weights of grain can be (and anciently were) used as physical constants, a basis for Bosak's related paper "Canonical Weights of Grain as a Key to Ancient Systems of Weights and Measures." Unlike most current treatments of the Customary System, The Old Measure is intended as a serious scholarly resource rather than just another tract arguing against the metric system, which is acknowledged to have strengths of its own.

THIS IS A PROMO-FILE INCLUDING ONLY A FEW PAGES AS A SAMPLE OF THE BOOK.
Title: Metal Vases & Utensils in the Vassil Bojkov Collection, vol.2.
Author: Athanasios Sideris.
Publisher: Thrace Foundation.
Editor: Ruja Popova.
ISBN: 978-954-92384-8-8.
Sofia 2021.
Pp. 428.
This is the second volume dedicated to the metal vases in the Vassil Bojkov Collection in Sofia (see herein vol. 1, 2016). It comprises 152 entries (cat. 147-298) of vases and utensils issued from the Thracian, Achaemenid, Greek and Hellenistic cultural domains, 105 of which have never been published previously. They are illustrated by 403 colour pictures and 195 drawings, complemented by 193 b&w pictures of parallels in other museums and collections. The time-span covered in this volume extends from the 11th to the 1st centuries BC. The volume comprises as well an extensive bibliography, three indexes, various lists and a map. It includes several unique or very rare pieces, such as a prehistoric gold kantharos, gold and silver phialae, several vases bearing dedicatory and other inscriptions, a new silver kantharos with figurative scenes, a bronze calyx crater, several silver rhyta with some outstanding exemplars decorated with a silenus figure and caracal protomes, as well as a unique silver plate with the representation of Aphrodite's birth from the ocean. The book will be soon available in Amazon.com or by addressing directly the Thrace Foundation.

A ce jour près de 800 objets en plomb ont été retrouvés à Bliesbruck . Cela fait de cette collection une des plus importantes de ce type d’artefacts trouvée en France. Les artefacts présentés dans cette étude illustrent la grande diversité des objets en plombs et leurs usages multiples : profanes et sacrés, domestiques et commerciaux.

Profound cultural changes occurred in the later 3rd millennium BC in many parts of the Aegean during the transition from the Early Bronze Age II to III (EBA II to III). These are for example observable in the drastic changes in architectural and pottery styles. This contribution deals with some examples of archaeological indicators for long-distance contacts between the Aegean and the east (Asia Minor and even beyond) during the Early Bronze Age. Relevant archaeological material for textile manufacture, adornment, seal and weight use, and silver production will be discussed. It is argued that trade and the potential physical presence of foreign merchants had a decisive impact on the “emergence of civilisation” during the EBA II. The long distance exchange was most likely driven by the eastern demand for silver and an Aegean desire for rare commodities, like specific “semi-precious“ beads and woolen textiles. A considerable disruption of this exchange pattern is witnessed by the beginning of the EBA III in the Aegean. It brought the development towards a more complex socio-economic organisation in many parts of the Aegean to a temporary end, with the notable exception of Crete. In the light of the recent suggestions of an earlier beginning of the EBA III in the Aegean, it seems difficult to reconcile this disruption with a potential climatic change around 2200 BC

THE BRONZE AGE IN TRANSYLVANIA: AN OVERVIEW
The study offers the present state of research regarding the Bronze Age in Transylvania, with some corrections towards the previous chronological systems proposed by other Romanian specialists. The beginning of the Early Bronze Age before 3000 BC, as proposed by the Bucharest school, is rejected, while the Late Bronze Age is seen as a longer period, covering both the Tumulus and Urnfield periods, according to Central European chronology. A few new considerations on the Yamnaya arrival in Transylvania are also made, introducing the preliminary results of the excavations performed in the kurgan at Hăpria.
The theory of a strong Mycenaean influence in the Transylvanian Middle Bronze Age, which is still supported by a few scholars, is not supported by evidence, and has to be rather seen as a Late Bronze phenomenon in the Balkans. The diffusion of a weighing system in the same period, as clearly demonstrated in the fragmentation of the gold rings from the Cugir hoard and other similar depots in Transylvania, is a much better proof for trade contacts with the Aegean in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC.
The intensive exploitation of salt resources with a new type of technology, specifically developed in the Eastern Carpathians, as well as the huge size of the bronze depots, probably based on both the salt and copper/gold mining, accompany the rise of a powerful ‘aristocracy of salt’. After the earlier mega-forts from the Banat region, new hillforts were built in Transylvania in the 12th century BC.
The author uses some of the results of new excavation made in the Telec hillfort in the frame of a LOEWE project to support the idea of a pre-Scythian military expedition of a Meszócsát group from the Tisza plain towards central Transylvania. The destruction and burning of the Teleac rampart and house in trench radiocarbon dated in the second half of the 10th century BC might be a direct consequence of this military incursion. The date of the Meszócsát-type burial at Vlaha fits quite well with the one from the post-destruction layer at Teleac. The arrival of the Basarabi groups along the Mureş valley by the end of the 9th century BC marks the end of the Transylvanian Late Bronze Age, the local Gáva-type communities being part of an acculturation process. The period represents the beginning of the Early Iron civilization and is accompanied by the last horizon (DFS VI) of the bimetallic depot, like the ones from Vinţu de Jos and Tărtăria.

The paper focuses on 6 unpublished metal artefacts from the British School at Athens Museum collection and from the Paul and Alexandra Canellopoulos Museum, which enrich the already generous corpus of bronze replicas of the astragalus bone unfortunately devoid of a secure archaeological provenance, traditionally interpreted as ancient weights. Based on a broader investigation of the archaeological evidence in a context perspective, the contribution offers a reassessment of this reading consolidated in archaeological literature and refects on the reasons behind the selection of the astragalus image for this class of materials: the analysis of the metallic replicas unearthed in Greek archaeological contexts and their depositional features allows to emphasize the votive value of these items – rather than functional – and to suggest the meaning of the astragalus shape – selected also as coin type – as “substitute” of animal sacrifice.

Un recente “scavo” nei magazzini del museo archeologico nazionale di aquileia ha portato alla raccolta di uno straordinario corpus di pesi per bilancia, sia metallici che lapidei, molti dei quali accompagnati da diverse tipologie di iscrizioni. Le informazioni fornite dal corredo epigrafico, di carattere prettamente pratico, contribuiscono a chiarire una serie di dinamiche riguardanti il commercio al minuto. esse collocano in primis i pesi all’interno del loro originario contesto d’impiego: le piccole tabernae, i porti e i mercati. Le indicazioni ponderali, le abbreviazioni di nomi dei possessori e le cifre forse da associare alla posizione occupata dal manufatto all’interno di serie di pondera utilizzati in uno stesso luogo sono un’importante fonte di informazione sul commercio spicciolo, dove la rapidità di identificazione dell’oggetto costituiva la necessità primaria. uscendo dalle strade gremite di venditori e acquirenti, il potenziale informativo dei pesi iscritti si estende anche alla dimensione statale. i pondera examinata aquileiesi, con certificazione dell’avvenuta calibrazione sulla base dei pesi ufficiali conservati presso il tempio dei castori a roma, illuminano un altro importante tassello della fervente vita commerciale della colonia: la necessità di garanzia ed esattezza assicurata da tali manufatti, che diventano metafora della longa manus dell’Urbs.

After a long series of investigations and fortuitous findings, a recent “excavation” in the warehouses of aquileia’s archaeological museum has led to the collection of an extraordinary corpus of metallic and stone balance weights whose many of them were inscribed. the information provided by the inscriptions, which were mainly of practical nature, enable the comprehension of the ancient retail trade’s organization. in fact, indications like the weight, the owner’s names’ abbreviations and numbers (which probably show the position of the artefacts within series of pondera used in the same place), reveal how the celerity of the weight’s identification was essential in the ancient trade. in that way, the inscribed weights’ informative potential spreads to a larger reality. the pondera examinata of aquileia, whose the official weight calibration is based on the specimens kept in the temple of castor in rome, clarify another important element of the aquileia’s intense commercial life: the need of guarantee and accuracy insured by these artefacts, that become a metaphor of the rome’s longa manus.

This second volume in the series collects papers from two workshops held at the University of Göttingen in 2019 and 2020. The international meetings tackled questions related to merchants and money in a comparative perspective, with examples spanning from the Bronze Age to the early Modern period and embracing Europe, the Mediterranean, Asia and East Africa. The first part of this volume presents historical case studies of how merchants planned and carried out commercial expeditions; how risk, cost, and potential profit was calculated; and how the value of goods was calculated and converted. The papers in the second part address current theories and methods on the development and function of money before and after the invention of coinage. The introduction of balance scales around 3000 BCE enabled the formation of overarching indexes of value and the calculation of the commercial value of goods and services. It also allowed for a selected set of commodities to take on the role of currency. Around 650 BCE, this led to the invention of coinage in the Eastern Mediterranean.

This paper examines four Roman units of weight discovered in the archaeological complex provisionally known as “domus of the Mithraeum” in Tarquinia, respectively during the 2016 and 2017’s campaigns.
At least two of them can be likely linked to production areas of the large Roman “domus of the Mithraeum”; thus mirroring other contexts where Roman weights come from rich private households or public buildings.

През последните две десетилетия има засилен интерес към контролните тежести-еталони, свързани с теглата на златните монети и с контрола на мерките за тежест (Владимирова-аладжова 2007, 343-350). Tежести са откривани в почти всички по-големи селища в периода V-VІІ в. (Динчев 2006; Владимирова-Aладжова 2007, 343, табл.1; Юрукова 2010, 99-108). Важно значение за идентификацията и отнасянето им към съответен исторически период имат фактори като археологическата среда, в която са открити, начинът им на изработка, групирането им в комплекти, датировката на нумизматичните комплекси и основно промяната в монетната система, която обслужват. Обект на настоящото проучване са контролни мерки за тежести-случайни находки, постъпили в регионален исторически музей (РИМ)-Монтана. В голямата си част произхождат от района на Югозападна България. Само една от тях е намерена в района на с. Бели мел, Монтанско. Тежести от Югозападна България са публикувани от районите на Кюстендил, Кюстендилско (с Мърводол), Дупнишко (Сапарева баня, с. Бистрица), Пернишко (Перник, Трънско) и Никополис ад Нестум. 1 От същия район е публикуван и комплект за тежести, съдържащ екзагии с тегла за 1, 2 и 3 унции, открит по време на археологически разкопки (Владимирова-Аладжова 2007, 344) 2. От района на Северозападна България са публикувани тежести от Кастра Мартис (Димитров 2005, 221-239) и от

The lead objects with Greek monetary types are more and more documented. This study aims to offer them a general frame of thinking, at a moment when several recent publications identify them, rather ex abrupto as test-pieces. As a matter of fact, these lead pieces with monetary types may have had various purposes: coins (official [and not necessarily only in a context of emergency], unofficial [ancient imitations and modern forgeries] or votive), tokens, seals or weights. The hypothesis of test-pieces is not absolutely discarded but, in most cases, it does not fit with
practical facts (we give a catalogue of all these alleged test-pieces). In several cases, we prefer to see them as simple fantasies, which were not obtained anyway from the die itself.

The word בֶּקַע, beka (a half shekel), its etymology and it's usage in the Hebrew Bible (Gen 24:22; Exod 38:26) and epigraphy/archaeology is discussed in this paper. Also the weight standard (shekel) which was applied is discussed. The article is published on the site of the Semantics of Ancient Hebrew Database (SAHD): http://sahd-online.com/.

Archaeological excavations carried out by a mission from the Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology on the site of the agora of Nea Paphos in Cyprus brought to light a lead weight with a Greek inscription giving the year 251 of an era and mentioning an agoranomos with the name Seleukos. On the basis of parallels, the author demonstrates that the weight must have been issued by the North Syrian city of Seleucia in Pieria, and the era used in the inscription is the civic era of Seleucia with the starting point in 109/108 , which allows one to date the object to 142/143. He argues that the structure where the object was found can tentatively be identified as agoranomeion of Nea Paphos.

In this article, I am tracing the early history of the use of sealing in the Aegean and Western Anatolia and this is followed by a similar analysis of weights.
The intention of this undertaking is:
1. to demonstrate that we have archaeological evidence of seal use in the first half of the third millennium through a small number of seal impressions on clay lumps which were intended to seal something, probably in a similar way as we know occurred at sites such as Lerna in the second half of the third millennium BC,
2. to use this and the increasing evidence of the later third millennium to argue that seal use became an important part of the economic organisation of the EBA societies in the Aegean,
3. to establish that the first evidence for the use of weights started during this same broad period of time in the earlier third millennium BC,
4. to emphasise the fact that both economic strategies are frequently found together at EBA settlements.

This book explores the reasons for which weights and scales were used to measure goods in Early Mesopotamia (ca. 3,200-2,000 BCE). The vast corpus of cuneiform records from this period sheds light on the various mechanisms behind the development of this cultural innovation. Weighing became the means of articulating the value of both imported and locally-produced goods within a socioeconomic system that had reached an unprecedented level of complexity. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of this cultural and economic phenomenon, which simultaneously reflected and shaped the relationships between individuals and groups in Mesopotamia throughout the third millennium BCE.

You may order a free copy if you intend to review the book for a scholarly journal here: https://www.degruyter.com/dg/page/review-copy-order/order-review-copy
Please contact the author if you have any questions or remarks concerning the book and its topic: vitali.v.bartash@gmail.com

Статья посвящена описанию и анализу раннесредневековых комплектов инструментов для взвешивания – балансовых весов и наборов гирек к ним, происходящих из более чем двух с половиной десятков комплексов IX-XI вв. с территории  Восточной и Северной Европы. Сравнительный анализ полных комплектов весовых гирек из кладов, кошельков и инвентарей погребений позволяет рассмотреть в статье вопросы, не решаемые на основании массы единичных находок: о структуре наборов инструментов для взвешивания, процедуре и способах взвешивания, метрологическом соотношении разновесов в комплекте, сферах применения и функциях различных типов гирь. Наборы также содержат важные свидетельства к основному вопросу изучения инструментов для взвешивания – нормам весовых единиц, лежащих в их основе. Привлечение данных о весе единичных находок весовых гирь хорошей сохранности с территории Древней Руси позволяет верифицировать полученные данные. Широкая география находок комплексов дает возможность оценить степень унифицированности комплектов раннесредневековых разновесов и стандартизации их весовых норм и, напротив, – выявить локальные вариации. Предпринятый в статье анализ структуры и веса кладов, содержавших наборы инструментов для  взвешивания, объединяя предмет взвешивания и его инструменты, позволяет уточнить функциональные и метрологические особенности разновесов.
На основании комплекса рассмотренных данных автором делается вывод о формировании в третьей четверти IX в. на территории Восточной Европы особой системы обращения серебра, основанной на весовом приеме драгоценного металла, где инструменты для взвешивания играют основополагающую роль.
К статье прилагаются сводные каталоги гирь разных типов с минимальными утратами первоначального веса, происходящих с древнерусских памятников IX – XI вв.

The article describes and analyses complexes of early-medieval tools for weighing (balance scales and weights for them, i.e. “stock-in-trade”) which have been found on the sites of Eastern Europe. The comparative analysis of the weight sets from the hoards, purses and inventories of the burials allows the access to the questions, which can’t be answered with the aid of the mass of isolated artefacts: the structure of the weighing tools, procedure and methods of weighing, metrological reference of the weights in the set, the application area and functions of diverse types of the weights. These sets also contain important evidence to the main problem of the research of the tools for weighing, i.e. the
standards of weight units taken for the base. The broad geography of the sites makes it possible to value the rate of the commonality of the sets of medieval weights and the standardization of their norms or, on the contrary, to detect local variants. The Appendix to the article is the catalogue of diverse weights mentioned in Old-Russian literary texts of the 9th – 11th centuries.

Modern scientific analytical techniques are very useful nowadays due to the variety of information they provide. X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XRF) and Femtosecond Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (fs-LA-ICP-MCMS) analytical techniques were used to analyse the Akan gold weights of West Africa (18 th-20 th centuries) in order to provide answers to questions about the metal origin, chronology of the different styles, and the time-frame of production of the alloys that were used to produce these gold weights. Analysis of the chemical composition of approximately 100 weights using a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer revealed that these weights were made of brass which was the largest group and a smaller, younger gunmetal group. Lead isotopic ratio measurements using fs-LA-ICP-MS revealed that the metals used for the manufacturing of these weights came from the Harz-Mountains in Germany. This indicates a massive metal flow from Germany to Great Britain and its colonies. The metals used to produce these weights could be dated prior to the 1860s.

In the beginning of the Early Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean the old systems of fixed ratios structured around a shekel of 9.4 g collapsed. the dominant unit became the 11.6 g weight standard: evidence of this change can be identified in the copper ingots reaching the West (Sardinia). In Southern Palestine the unit of 7.7 g is still dominant. later it will be adopted by the Phoenicians and would spread to the far West (Iberia). In the Western Mediterranean, two quite distinct areas were identified: the tyrrhenian region affected by the 11.6 g standard and the Balearic Sea zone dominated by the 7.7 g unit. The authors discuss the framework of this new condition, how an increasingly complex network required looking for an exchange ratio between the measures, and how a proportional value of 2:3 was finally settled on for that ratio.

The current paper examines five bronze, relief weights, produced in a mold. They have all been discovered in the Agora of Pella and its surrounds. They are all square; on their upper surface they bear either a denotation of their weight (nos 1-3) or a symbol (no 4) or a monogram (no. 5), which possibly indicates the name of an official of the city.
The majority of the weights adopts the Attic weight standard. The only exception is no. 1, which follows the “allied standard”. By their weight, three standards can be recognized. Weight no. 3 fits with Attic mna of 105 drachmas; weights nos. 2 and 4 follow a mna of 112 drachmas, while weights nos. 1 and 5 relate to a mna of 138 drachmas. The last two examples derive from the destruction layer of the city or immediately below it. This leads us to the conclusion that they were possibly in use at the time of the destruction of the city in the early 1st century B.C. The market control, evident on weight no. 5, which was stamped with an official seal in order to be reused, comprises an additional indication that the weight standard of the early 1st century B.C. was the one of the mna of 138 drachmas. Therefore, we can distinguish at least two changes in the weight standard, with the very last being in use in the final days of Pella.
The caduceus and the monogram on the weights nos. 4 and 5, strengthened by the market control evidence, verifying the existence of archons in Pella. They had the responsibility to produce the prototypes and to control the weight standards, either during the reign or after the Roman conquest.
Lastly, the developed commerce existing in the capital of the Macedonian kingdom may explain the discovery of weight no. 1 in an area close to the central south entrance of the Agora. It would have been required in such a milieu for regulating purchases and in the possible exchange of coins to silver according to the familiar weight standard.