Camera Traps

Aim: Reliable estimates of population density are fundamental to wildlife conservation and management. Although the leopard cat is the most common and widespread wild felid in China, little is known about the ecology and population biology of this species in the country. Using spatially explicit capture-recapture (SERC) modelling derived from extensive camera-trapping data, we estimated the population density and activity patterns of leopard cats in a well-protected private nature reserve in southern China.

Methods: Between June 2020 and May 2021, we conducted a camera-trap survey across a pre-determined grid system in Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (KFBG), Hong Kong. KFBG was established on a barren hillside following sustained anthropogenic disturbances. After six decades of protection, secondary forest currently covers approximately 80% of the site. We deployed a total of 19 camera trap stations across our small 1.5 km2 study area, with two opposite-facing cameras at each station to obtain images of both flanks of leopard cats. The consecutive 12-month survey yielded 113 independent capture events of the leopard cat, of which 61 events were clear enough to facilitate individual identification. Based on closed population assumptions for capture-recapture models, we also divided the 12-month survey into six two-month sampling periods, and estimated the population density for each sampling period using Maximum Likelihood SECR modelling. We also examined activity kernel densities to estimate the difference in diel activity patterns between wet and dry seasons.

Results: Our analyses revealed that results from two sampling periods were robust and precise enough (i.e., low standard error and narrow 95% confidence intervals) to estimate leopard cat density. We estimated leopard density between June-July 2020 as D = 0.64 ± 0.31 (0.26–1.55) individuals/km2, and between February-March 2021 as D = 0.87 ± 0.48 (0.31–2.40) individuals/km2, which are among the highest density estimates for this species reported in any region. We also found that the diel activity pattern of leopard cats in the study site is arrhythmic during the wet season, but became more nocturnal-crepuscular during the dry season, though they also exhibited some diurnal activity. Kernel density analyses however suggested no significant differences in diel activity patterns occurred between wet and dry seasons. 

Conclusions: Our study provides important early data on the population density of leopard cats in southern mainland China, the results of which allow for comparisons with other studies elsewhere using capture-recapture modelling approaches. We further demonstrate the utility of SECR methods for estimating population density over short and long sampling periods across necessarily small sampling areas. We further provide practical recommendations for conducting camera trap surveys to enhance the success rates of individual identification and “recapture” of leopard cats. In accordance with the conclusion of other studies, our results show that leopard cats are highly adaptable, exhibit great plasticity in daily activity, and thrive well in human-modified landscapes.

The Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi is a medium sized (15–25 kg) cat, found only on the Sundaic islands of Borneo and Sumatra. In recent years intensive camera-trapping surveys in Borneo have begun to shed light on the habitat associations and basic ecology of this elusive wild cat, but its distribution on an island-wide scale remains very poorly known. Such information is an essential element in the assessment of the Sunda clouded leopard’s conservation status and in the development of conservation action. In this paper we use MaxEnt niche distribution modelling to make predictions regarding the current distribution of this cat on Borneo. We collected a total of 259 occurrence records for the Sunda clouded leopard, stemming from all Bornean regions apart from Brunei and South Kalimantan, of which 48 (Balanced Model) or 94 (Spatial Filtering Model) were used in our modelling. Our habitat suitability model suggests that this species has a widespread distribution over a large co...

Many studies have demonstrated the importance of terrestrial mammal fauna to ecosystem functioning and services. To date, however, few studies of mammal abundance in Trinidad and Tobago have been conducted. Our main objective here was to compare the relative abundance (RA) of agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina), an important bushmeat species, in a lowland, multi-use recreational forest surrounded by urbanization, with a former plantation that is now a protected nature reserve containing upland secondary forest. We hypothesized that coarse-scale factors such as hunting, elevation, proximity to paved roads, and vegetation density, would affect the relative abundance of these two agouti populations. As part of the first pilot survey of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) on Trinidad, using the same camera setup, we deployed paired camera-trap stations at 10 sites in the recreational forest, and five sites in the smaller nature reserve, along a 1 km2 grid of each study site’s trail system between 24 June and 6 November 2016. To test the relative importance of these key ecological factors on agouti relative abundance, we conducted simple linear regressions of each covariate. We found that hunting was significantly associated with lower relative abundance of agouti (p<0.05), whereas increases in elevation had a significant positive effect on relative abundance of agouti (p<0.05). Interestingly, we also found a significant inverse relationship between agouti abundance and the proximity to paved roads (p<0.05), i.e., agouti’s relative abundance was greater at shorter distances or closer to paved roads. We also found no relationship between vegetation density and agouti relative abundance (p>0.05). We concluded that hunting, elevation, and proximity to paved roads, all significantly impact the relative abundance index (RAI) of local agouti populations.

Southeast Asia’s tropical forests suffer the highest rates of deforestation and disturbance of any on Earth, with poorly understood impacts on native fauna. Asian tapirs (Tapirus indicus) are among the least studied of the large mammals in these forests. Using records from 9 camera trap surveys in 7 of the largest (>1000 km2) protected area complexes, we assessed the influence of environmental variation and human-induced disturbance on tapir occurrence. Tapirs were detected at 13% of locations sampled, significantly associated with evergreen forest (P < 0.001). A multiple logistic regression model predicted tapir presence 87% of the time. According to this model, tapir occurrence was positively influenced by annual rainfall and proximity to the forest edge. However, tapirs may not avoid edges but instead prefer wetter evergreen forest, a habitat type that tended to occur further from the forest edge at higher elevations in our particular study sites (P < 0.001). By comparison, 4 other wild ungulate species that share habitats with tapirs showed a range of differing responses. Tapirs are expected to be less sensitive to disturbance because they are not targets for hunting and trade, and are almost entirely active at night, so avoid peak traffic periods in parks. Tapir populations in Thailand may be more stable than in other parts of their global range because rates of forest loss have decreased >40% over the past 20 years. We recommend surveys to fill gaps in the understanding of the status in lesser-known protected areas, research to better understand the fine-scale environmental influences on behavior and habitats of tapirs, and other forest ungulates, and continued legal status for tapirs in the highest category of protection.

Borneo harbours more endemic carnivores than does any other island in the world except Madagascar, and almost half of the Bornean carnivore species have been classified by The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as globally threatened. Here, a systematic conservation planning framework highlighted key carnivore landscapes, conservation research and intervention priorities, and gaps in current knowledge of Bornean carnivore ecology. All single-species predictive habitat suitability index (HSI) models presented in this issue (20 species, comprising all carnivores on Borneo except otters [Lutrinae] and sun bear Helarctos malayanus) were standardised by converting HSI values into binary maps, and combined to derive species richness maps to discuss and delineate areas of conservation priority. The highest predicted carnivore species richness (defined here as the sum of the binary threshold maps), corresponds to interior lowland, upland and lower montane forest, whereas areas with lowest predicted species richness correspond to coastal lowlands already largely converted to oil palm plantations. The 12 proposed areas of conservation importance for carnivores focus on large landscapes and connectivity between subunits, many centred around the tri-national Heart of Borneo initiative, with additional areas for wetland/lowland species. A large proportion of these proposed conservation landscapes are being exploited for commercial purposes (e.g., logging concessions) and would, therefore, improve in conservation value if their management became more sustainable. The most important research priorities for Bornean carnivores are species resilience to altered and fragmented landscapes; under-surveyed regions; and the effects and relative intensity of hunting across the island. The most pressing conservation interventions include conservation research on the most threatened Bornean carnivores: the Bornean ferret badger Melogale everetti and Hose's civet Diplogale hosei (highland endemics), and the flat-headed cat Prionailurus planiceps and otter civet Cynogale bennettii (wetland specialists). Targeted conservation research and integration of research findings into decision-making, maintaining and restoring connectivity, raising awareness and improving enforcement and governance are also important conservation interventions. Although more resources are needed for conservation and research, the joint effort of scientists, conservationists and government authorities in the identification of key carnivore landscapes, research priorities and conservation issues which this study presents raises hope that more targeted conservation efforts for Bornean carnivores will follow in the future.

Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Wilayah Borneo memiliki paling banyak karnivora endemik dibandingkan pulau lainnya di seluruh dunia, selain Madagaskar. Hampir setengah dari keseluruhan jenis karnivora yang ada di Borneo masuk dalam kategori terancam pada daftar IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Disini, suatu kerangka perencanaan konservasi yang sistimatis menyoroti kawasan kunci karnivora, prioritas penelitian dan intervensi aspek konservasi, serta kesenjangan dari pengetahuan mengenai ekologi karnivora di Borneo. Semua model pendugaan Index Kesesuaian Habitat (IKH) pada setiap spesies yang disajikan dalam tulisan ini (20 spesies, terdiri atas semua spesies karnivora yang ada di Borneo terkecuali berang-berang [Lutrinae] dan Beruang Madu Helarctos malayanus) distandardisasi dengan mengkonversi nilai IKH ke dalam pemetaan binari, dan digabung untuk memperoleh peta kekayaan spesies guna dibahas dan ditetapkan wilayah prioritasnya. Nilai pendugaan kekayaan spesies karnivora tertinggi (sebagai jumlah dari peta ambang binari), adalah selaras dengan bentuk hutan pedalaman dataran rendah, hutan dataran tinggi dan hutan pegunungan dataran rendah, sedangkan wilayah dengan pendugaan kekayaan spesies karnivora terendah adalah selaras dengan bentuk pantai dataran rendah yang telah berubah sepenuhnya menjadi perkebunan kelapa sawit. Dua belas wilayah dicanangkan sebagai wilayah penting untuk dikonservasi bagi karnivora, terpusat pada bentang alam yang luas dan saling berhubungan diantara sub-unit, kebanyakan berpusat di sekitar area Heart of Borneo di tiga negara, dengan wilayah tambahan untuk spesies dataran rendah atau lahan basah. Sebagain besar dari wilayah yang dicanangkan ini merupakan wilayah yang telah banyak dieksploatasi untuk tujuan komersil (konsesi hutan) dan dapat meningkatkan nilai konservasi manakala pengelolaannya bersifat berkelanjutan. Prioritas terpenting untuk penelitian karnivora Borneo adalah kesanggupan spesies beradaptasi pada wilayah yang terfragmentasi; wilayah-wilayah dalam area survey, serta pengaruh dari perburuan di semua wilayah pulau. Intervensi konservasi terpenting mencakup penelitian konservasi pada karnivora Borneo yang paling terancam: Biul Slentek Melogale everetti dan Musang Gunung Diplogale hosei (endemik dataran tinggi), serta Kucing Tandang Prionailurus planiceps dan Musang Air Cynogale bennettii (spesialis lahan basah). Penelitian wilayah konservasi terpilih dan integrasi temuan hasil penelitian kedalam penetapan kebijakan, menjaga dan memperbaiki RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY Supplement

M.Sc. Thesis: Table Mountain and Silvermine‐Tokai are the two mountain ranges and distinct sections of Table Mountain National Park in closest proximity to the metropolitan megacity of Cape Town, SA. This study used unbaited motion‐triggered digital remote camera traps to determine species richness, relative abundance, occupancy, and spatial distribution of medium‐ to large‐sized terrestrial mammals in the 60km² study range to assist future decisions of conservation stakeholders by providing unprecedented biodiversity baseline datasets.

Inspired by the astonishing and unprecedented speed and scale of uptakes of the camera, this study seeks to unravel the behavioral aspects surrounding young people’s adoption and consumption of the device. Because the camera is associated with specific social practices characteristic of a specific ‘way of life’ of a distinct set of people, it is considered here as a ‘cultural commodity’ significant of the society of present times. In light of this, the present study addresses the reasons for adoption from both functional and symbolic perspectives. Comparison with traditional cameras and other referent technologies has shown that, while the present day digital camera is seen as a superior substitute for traditional cameras due to the unique experience that it provides, it is less so in terms of the substitution potentials of the device in relation to more established forms of personal technologies, such as the computer and smartphones. This study is a small contribution to the understanding of human adoption and consumption behavior of new technologies and the wider cultural and social aspects surrounding the camera as a personal communication device.

El estado de Michoacán presenta una amplia gama de ecosistemas y biodiversidad, de la cual destaca su mastofauna, alrededor de 161 especies de mamíferos silvestres terrestre. Por otro lado, regiones del estado presentan graves problemas por cambios de uso de suelo, la franja aguactera es la zona con mayor impacto debido a esta acción, además pocos estudios han evaluado el estado de conservación y el comportamiento de la fauna silvestre ante estas presiones antrópogenicas. El presente  estudio tiene como objetivo principal evaluar la riqueza, abundancia relativa y uso de hábitat interanual de los mamíferos medianos y grandes para la estación biológica “Vasco de Quiroga” en Uruapan, Michoacán, México. Para el estudio se colocaron cámaras trampa de mayo del 2017 a mayo del 2018, se realizó un esfuerzo de muestreo de 2428 días trampa y se obtuvieron 274 registros independientes de 16 especies pertenecientes a cinco órdenes, nueve familias y 16 géneros, destacando la presencia de cuatro de las seis especies de felinos registradas para México Puma concolor, Lynx rufus, Herpailurus yagouaroundi y Leopardus wiedii, las últimas dos de ellas además en categorías de riesgo. Este número de especies registradas representa el 19.27% de las 83 especies de mamíferos medianos y grandes terrestres registradas para el país, el 51.6% de las 31 especies registradas para el estado de Michoacán y el 61.5% de las 26 especies registradas para la Faja VolcánicaTransmexicana.

The flat-headed cat Prionailurus planiceps is classified as one of the most threatened cat species in the world. Its range is restricted to southern Thailand, peninsular Malaysia and the two largest Sunda Islands, Borneo and Sumatra. Its association with wetlands and lowland areas puts great pressure on this species, because these habitats are most threatened by degradation and agricultural conversions. Borneo has been identified as the stronghold for flat-headed cat. Of 140 flat-headed cat occurrence records for Borneo, 50 (Balanced Model) or 76 (Spatial Filtering Model) were used to estimate potential habitat suitability. Although we predicted suitable habitat for the flat-headed cat scattered across the lowlands of Borneo, some large lowland areas are predicted to be unsuitable, a likely consequence of forest conversion to oil palm plantations. Of particular predicted importance are forests in Brunei Darussalam, the Sabangau National Park and surrounding forest complex in Central Kalimantan and forests in North Kalimantan, as well as the central forest block in Sabah. The main threat to the flat-headed cat is ongoing transformation of forested areas to monoculture plantations, as the species appears unable to use these human-dominated habitats. Of particular importance for long-term survival of flat-headed cat is conservation of land near rivers and peat swamp forests.

Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Kucing Tandang Prionailurus planiceps diklasifikasikan sebagai salah satu jenis kucing liar yang paling terancam di dunia. Daerah sebarannya terbatas di Thailand Selatan, Semenanjung Malaysia dan dua Kepulauan Sunda terbesar, Borneo dan Sumatera. Asosiasi jenis ini adalah lahan basah dan dataran rendah, yaitu kawasan yang mendapatkan tekanan yang sangat tinggi saat ini oleh degradasi dan konversi menjadi lahan pertanian, sehingga tekanan terhadap Kucing Tandang juga sangat tinggi. Borneo telah diidentifikasi sebagai benteng terbaik untuk Kucing Tandang. Kami mengumpulkan 140 catatan kehadiran Kucing Tandang di Borneo, dimana 50 (Model Penyeimbang) atau 76 (Model Spasial Tersaring) digunakan untuk mengestimasi habitat yang sesuai. Walaupun prediksi habitat yang sesuai tersebar di dataran rendah Borneo, tetapi hasil penelitian kami juga menyatakan sebagian besar kawasan dataran rendah tidak sesuai untuk habitat, yang merupakan konsekuensi dari konversi hutan menjadi perkebunan sawit. Prediksi kawasan penting adalah kawasan hutan di Brunei Darussalam, Taman Nasional Sebangau dan sekitar kawasan hutan di Kalimantan Tengah, kawasan hutan di Kalimantan Utara, juga kawasan hutan di Sabah. Ancaman utama jenis Kucing Tandang adalah konversi kawasan hutan menjadi kawasan tanaman monokultur sehingga jenis ini tidak dapat hidup di kawasan yang didominasi oleh aktivitas manusia. Suatu yang paling penting bagi kelestarian jenis Kucing Tandang ini adalah mempertahankan kawasan sempadan sungai dan kawasan hutan rawa gambut. Abstrak (Bahasa Malaysia). Kucing Hutan Prionailurus planiceps dianggap sebagai salah satu spesis kucing yang paling terancam di dunia. Taburan spesis ini terhad di selatan Thailand, Semenanjung Malaysia dan di dua kepulauan Sunda yang terbesar iaitu Borneo dan Sumatera. Perkaitannya dengan tanah bencah dan kawasan tanah rendah memberikan tekanan yang tinggi kepada spesis ini kerana habitat ini sangat terancam dengan kemusnahan dan aktiviti penukaran tanah kepada akuakultur. Borneo telah dikenal pasti sebagai kawasan utama untuk Kucing Hutan. Kami mengumpul sejumlah 140 rekod Kucing Hutan di Borneo. Daripada jumlah itu, 50 rekod (Model Seimbang) atau 78 rekod (Model yang ditapis secara spasial) telah digunakan untuk meramal kesesuaian habitat yang berpotensi bagi spesis ini. Walaupun kami meramalkan habitat yang sesuai untuk Kucing Hutan adalah bertaburan di seluruh kawasan tanah rendah Borneo, keputusan yang kami perolehi turut mencadangkan bahawa sesetengah kawasan tanah rendah yang luas adalah tidak sesuai bagi Kucing Hutan. Ini kemungkinan disebabkan kawasan tersebut telah dijadikan ladang kelapa sawit. Antara kawasan penting yang diramal untuk spesis ini adalah hutan di Brunei Darussalam, Taman Negara Sabangau dan kompleks hutan di Kalimantan Tengah, hutan di bahagian utara Kalimantan Timur serta kompleks hutan di bahagian tengah Sabah. Ancaman utama bagi Kucing Hutan adalah penukaran kawasan hutan kepada ladang monokultur yang masih lagi berlaku pada ketika ini. Ini kerana spesis ini dilihat tidak mampu untuk mengguna kawasan yang telah didominasi oleh manusia. Antara langkah penting untuk kelangsungan hidup jangka panjang Kucing Hutan adalah pemuliharaan kawasan hutan yang berhampiran dengan sungai dan hutan paya gambut.

Guanajuato es considerado como una entidad con diversidad intermedia, alcanzando un 16.6% de la mastofauna registrada en todo el país a pesar de presentar una alta fragmentación en sus ambientes naturales debido a su sobresaliente crecimiento industrial y producción agropecuaria. La Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra Gorda de Guanajuato es considerada como uno de los pocos refugios para la fauna en la entidad y a pesar de ello, se carece de estudios que nos permitan realizar algún análisis ecológico básico de este grupo. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo contribuir con información sobre la diversidad, distribución y patrones de actividad de los mamíferos medianos y grandes, haciendo énfasis en el ensamblaje de los carnívoros por su gran importancia ecológica dentro de las redes tróficas. Se obtuvieron 1,243 registros independientes de mamíferos medianos y grandes a través del uso de cámaras trampa, resaltando la presencia de Dicotyles angulatus en la región y siendo el orden Carnívora el mejor representado con 12 de las 20 especies registradas. Se obtuvo la primera evidencia fotográfica de una especie en categoría de riesgo como Taxidea taxus, de la que no se contaba con ningún reporte desde 1874. La riqueza y diversidad de los carnívoros que se reporta en los tres hábitats estudiados demuestran que el Matorral Submontano es el ambiente con una mayor puntuación en estos rubros. Además, de acuerdo a su composición, resulta más similar al Bosque de Encino que al Matorral Xerófilo. Por otro lado, los patrones de distribución nos exponen una clara preferencia de todos los carnívoros hacia los periodos nocturnos y pone de manifiesto su casi nula detectabilidad durante el día.

As part of an effort to develop a comprehensive management plan for the Imbak Canyon Conservation Area in central Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, we conducted a rapid but extensive mammal survey using camera-trapping techniques. We gathered baseline data on mammal species richness and community composition, as well as information on activity patterns for some mammal species. Eighty motion-triggered digital camera-traps were set in the primary and logged forests in and around the Imbak Canyon. The total accumulated camera-trapping effort of 1,436 camera trap-nights yielded 1,641 digital photographs of mammals represented by 27 species in 14 families and fi ve orders. The species photo-captured included common species, as well as rare and elusive species and species that are of high conservation value, such as the Sunda clouded leopard, Neofelis diardi and orang utan, Pongo pygmaeus. Our results indicated that the primary forest of the Imbak Canyon and its surrounding disturbed forests are important habitats for mammal conservation. Of particular importance are the carnivores, with 13 species recorded. Game animals, such as bearded pig, Sus barbatus, muntjac, Muntiacus spp., and mousedeer, Tragulus spp., were found to be among the most frequently photo-captured and the most widespread species. The activity patterns of mammals investigated did not show that they were affected by human activities. Even so, we found substantial evidence of poaching and illegal collection of the aromatic gaharu tree resin (Aquilaria spp.) in the surveyed areas, raising management concerns and highlighting the urgent need for law enforcement activities in the area. KEY WORDS.-camera trapping, Imbak Canyon, mammal species richness, activity patterns.

The Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest is a biodiverse ecoregion that has seen major agricultural growth in the last 40 years, particularly in eastern Paraguay. Large tracts of forest have been transformed into crop land and the only remaining forested areas have been relegated almost exclusively to nature reserves or protected areas. Here we present a remarkable camera-trap record of bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) from the first systematic survey of terrestrial mammals performed within the eight private protected areas managed by ITAIPU Binacional, a hydroelectric entity administered by the governments of Paraguay and Brazil. The purpose of our ongoing study is to collect presence data on the community of medium- and large-bodied mammals in these protected areas, which constitute some of the most significant fragments of the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest in eastern Paraguay and have previously never been surveyed using camera-traps. We recorded photos of 1-2 individ-ual bush dogs, locally known as the “jagua yvyguy,” an elusive canid species, in the Carapã Nature Reserve in May 2018. Presence of this species in the Itaipu Area of Influence was first documented in 1979. Since then, its presence has been reported only through opportunistic sightings and never photographically. Given the high levels of deforestation and poaching the region has experienced in recent decades, this record suggests a travel corridor if not a potential population in the Carapã Nature Reserve. We hope to continue collecting data on this species through camera-traps and other methods to better inform potential management decisions and conservation strategies that will benefit the continued persistence of this regionally endangered carnivore.

Camera traps were used to examine male ocelot territories and microhabitat selection in the Ecuadorian Amazon.  Little information is available on ocelots in Ecuador and no studies on ocelots had been conducted in the country using camera traps.  In this study, cameras were positioned along trails surrounding the Tiputini Biodiversity Station from January 2010 to February 2012.  Three resident males were recorded in the area during this period.  On average, the male ocelots enlarged their territory by 220.43% during the dry season and one male was found to shift his territory closer to the Tiputini River.  Of the 7 environmental variables that were compared against ocelot capture frequency at each camera (using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient), none of them were significantly correlated (P< 0.05).  However, there were high correlation rates, -0.442 and -.0430 respectively, between ocelot capture frequencies and distance to river and distance to camp.  This study demonstrates the effectiveness of camera traps in habitat ecology research as well as providing a framework for future research to strengthen conservation efforts in the Tiputini Biopreserve of the Ecuadorian Amazon.  Camera traps are potentially effective tools to examine effects of habitat alteration in response to anthropogenic impacts.

As part of an effort to develop a comprehensive management plan for the Imbak Canyon Conservation Area in central Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, we conducted a rapid but extensive mammal survey using camera-trapping techniques. We gathered baseline data on mammal species richness and community composition, as well as information on activity patterns for some mammal species. Eighty motion-triggered digital camera-traps were set in the primary and logged forests in and around the Imbak Canyon. The total accumulated camera-trapping effort of 1,436 camera trap-nights yielded 1,641 digital photographs of mammals represented by 27 species in 14 families and fi ve orders. The species photo-captured included common species, as well as rare and elusive species and species that are of high conservation value, such as the Sunda clouded leopard, Neofelis diardi and orang utan, Pongo pygmaeus. Our results indicated that the primary forest of the Imbak Canyon and its surrounding disturbed forests are i...

Despite being heavily exploited, pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) have been subject to limited research, resulting in a lack of reliable population estimates and standardised survey methods for the eight extant species. Camera trapping represents a unique opportunity for broad-scale collaborative species monitoring due to its largely non-discriminatory nature, which creates considerable volumes of data on a relatively wide range of species. This has the potential to shed light on the ecology of rare, cryptic and understudied taxa, with implications for conservation decision-making. We undertook a global analysis of available pangolin data from camera trapping studies across their range in Africa and Asia. Our aims were (1) to assess the utility of existing camera trapping efforts as a method for monitoring pangolin populations, and (2) to gain insights into the distribution and ecology of pangolins. We analysed data collated from 103 camera trap surveys undertaken across 22 countries that fell within the range of seven of the eight pangolin species, which yielded more than half a million trap nights and 888 pangolin encounters. We ran occupancy analyses on three species (Sunda pangolin Manis javanica, white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis and giant pangolin Smutsia gigantea). Detection probabilities varied with forest cover and levels of human influence for P. tricuspis, but were low (<0.05) for all species. Occupancy was associated with distance from rivers for M. javanica and S. gigantea, elevation for P. tricuspis and S. gigantea, forest cover for P. tricuspis and protected area status for M. javanica and P. tricuspis. We conclude that camera traps are suitable for the detection of pangolins and large-scale assessment of their distributions. However, the trapping effort required to monitor populations at any given study site using existing methods appears prohibitively high. This may change in the future should anticipated technological and methodological advances in camera trapping facilitate greater sampling efforts and/or higher probabilities of detection. In particular, targeted camera placement for pangolins is likely to make pangolin monitoring more feasible with moderate sampling efforts.

Short-tailed mongoose Herpestes brachyurus is known to inhabit Borneo, Sumatra and peninsular Malaysia. Locality records show that it is widespread and probably common in at least the northern half of Borneo. Records are much sparser south of 2°N. It occurs in forest and, to a poorly clarified extent, non-forest habitats. Eighty-six spatially precise records were used to model its Bornean distribution. This modelling is complicated by several factors: difficulties of field separation from collared mongoose H. semitorquatus (reducing the number of available records); limited interest in, and thus familiarity with, the species (perhaps reducing the reliability of the respondents' opinions on habitat use); and strong evidence that altitudinal range and perhaps other aspects of habitat use differ between major landmasses (also potentially confounding opinions on habitat use). Within Borneo it is important to (1) clarify the extent of the specie's use of degraded and non-forest habitats, and (2) assess whether the paucity of records in Borneo from south of 2°N reflects a rarity of animals or simply low survey effort. Irrespective of short-tailed mongoose's precise habitat-use patterns in Borneo, it seems unlikely to be under major threat there. Its extent of occurrence encompasses all, or nearly all, the island; it has a large potential range outside the lowlands where large-scale forest clearance has been concentrated; there is no evidence of any association with any particularly threatened microhabitat; and it is highly unlikely to be subject to targeted or intensive hunting except locally as a livestock predator. Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Garangan Ekor-Pendek Herpestes brachyurus dapat dijumpai di wilayah Borneo. Sumatera dan Semenanjung Malaysia. Catatan setempat menunjukkan satwa ini tersebar luas, tampaknya sangat umum untuk sebagian wilayah utara Borneo. Catatan menunjukkan keberadaanya semakin jarang ke arah selatan pada 2°LU. Dijumpai di hutan, serta pada informasi terbatas, di habitat bukan hutan. Sebanyak 86 catatan perjumpaan digunakan dalam pemodelan persebaran di Borneo. Pemodelan ini cukup rumit karena beberapa hal: keterbatasn kemampuan membedakan dari Garangan Ekor-Panjang H. semitorquatus (menurunkan jumlah data akurat), rendahnya perhatian pada satwa ini, sehingga menurunkan pemahaman jenis (menurunkan kemampuan pemamahan reponden terhadap habitat sesungguhnya) dan adanya bukti kuat bahwa ketinggian wilayah dan mungkin aspek lain dari penggunaan habitat berbeda untuk setiap bentang alam (menyebabkan adanya kesalahan tafsir dari perkiraan penggunaan habitat). Untuk wilayah Borneo, sangat penting untuk (1) memperjelas dalam hal penggunaan wilayah oleh satwa pada wilayah habitat terganggu dan bukan hutan dan (2) mengkaji apakah rendahnya catatan di Borneo pada wilayah selatan dari 2°LU karena jarangnya satwa ini atau karena rendahnya data survey. Terlepas dari tepatnya pendugaan penggunaan habitat oleh Garangan Ekor-Pendek di Borneo, tampaknya jenis ini tidak dalam tingkat terancam. Luasnya persebaran membuktikan hal: persebaran yang sangat luas hingga di luar kawasan dataran rendah dimana pembalakan hutan terpusat; tidak ada bukti nyata akan hubungan dengan ancaman mikroklimat dan tampaknya tidak pernah menjadi target buruan terkecuali diburu karena menganggu hewan ternak. Abstrak (Bahasa Malaysia). Bambun Ekor Pendek Herpestes brachyurus diketahui berada di Borneo, Sumatra dan Semenanjung Malaysia. Rekod-rekod menunjukkan ianya bertaburan luas dan mungkin biasa ditemui di sebelah utara Borneo. Rekod-rekod menjadi berkurangan di sebelah selatan 2°N. Ia dijumpai di hutan dan kurang jelas setakat mana ia menggunakan kawasan bukan hutan. Lapan puluh enam rekod tepat digunakan untuk meramalkan taburannya di Borneo. Proses pemodelan dirumitkan oleh beberapa faktor: kesukaran mengasingkan spesis ini dari Bambun Ekor Panjang H. semitorquatus (ini seterusnya mengurangkan jumlah rekod yang ada); minat dan kebiasaan yang terhad terhadap spesis ini (mungkin mengurangkan kebolehpercayaan pendapat para pakar tentang penggunaan habitat oleh spesis ini); dan cukup bukti yang menunjukkan julat penggunaan ketinggian atas paras laut dan mungkin ciri-ciri penggunaan habitat yang lain, biasanya tidak sama di antara wilayah-wilayah besar (ini juga mengakibatkan pertentangan pendapat tentang penggunaan habitat oleh spesis ini). Di dalam Borneo, ianya penting untuk (1) menjelaskan tahap penggunaan habitat yang bukan hutan dan hutan yang sudah didegradasi oleh spesis ini, dan (2) menjelsakan sama ada kekurangan rekod dari sebelah selatan 2°N menunjukkan spesis ini memang jarang didapati di sana atau ianya hanya kerana kurang usaha pemantauan dan kajian di sana. Tidak kira apa jenis RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY Supplement

Hose's civet Diplogale hosei is one of the world's least known carnivores and is endemic to Borneo. We collected 43 records of which only 20 (Balanced Model) or 24 (Spatial Filtering Model) were used to model potential habitat suitability. We predicted habitat suitable for Hose's civet to be largely restricted to the central spine of the mountainous interior, corresponding to much of the northern half of the 'Heart of Borneo' complex. Although protected areas are scattered throughout this complex, many are poorly managed, facing threats from illegal logging and mining, poaching and encroachment. The surrounding matrix of logging concessions face conversion to monoculture plantations, in which there is no evidence that the species can persist. To ensure the conservation of the species, further research is urgently required, both in-depth ecological studies and basic inventory work using camera-traps across Borneo. More intensive surveys in all habitats are needed to improve current models so they can inform conservation planning more effectively. Pending sufficient information, sensible precautionary measures need to be taken such as increased enforcement including patrolling activities in key protected areas, encouraging sustainable forestry in the surrounding logging concessions and maintaining forested corridors to support movement and gene flow between sub-populations.

Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Musang Gunung Diplogale hosei merupakan salah satu karnivora di dunia yang belum banyak dipahami dan endemik di Borneo. Kami telah mengumpulkan 43 catatan dimana hanya 20 (Model Penyeimbang) atau 24 (Model Spasial Tersaring) yang digunakan untuk pemodelan kesesuian habitat yang potensial. Kami memperkirakan kesesuaian habitat untuk Musang Gunung sebagian besar berada terbatas di bagian tengah pedalaman pegunungan, mencakup bahagian utara wilayah "Heart of Borneo". Walaupun kawasan perlindungan cukup tersebar di wilayah tersebut, banyak pengelolaaannya yang kurang memadai, menghadapi ancaman dari pembalakan dan penambangan liar, perburuan gelap dan penyerobotan lahan. Wilayah-wilayah di kawasan konsesi pengusahaan hutan menghadapi ancaman dari konversi penanaman secara monokultur, dimana belum ada bukti jenis musang ini mampu bertahan hidup. Guna memastikan konservasi jenis musang ini, penelitian lebih lanjut sangat diperlukan, baik mengenai ekologi secara mendalam maupun pemantauan dasar menggunakan perangkap kamera di wilayah Borneo. Survey yang lebih intensif pada semua bentuk habitat juga diperlukan guna meningkatkan pemodelan yang telah ada, sehingga dapat memberikan informasi yang lebih baik berkaitan dengan perencanaan konservasi. Dalam keterbatasan informasi yang ada, langkah-langkah lebih lanjut diperlukan seperti penegakan hukum dan aktifitas patroli pada wilayah perlindungan utama, menyarankan pemanfaatan hutan secara berkelanjutan disekitaran wilayah konsesi pengusahaan hutan dan menjaga koridor berhutan guna mendukung pergerakan dan laju genetik diantara sub-populasi. Abstrak (Bahasa Malaysia). Musang Hitam Pudar Diplogale hosei adalah antara mammalia karnivora yang paling tidak diketahui di dunia. Ianya endemik (hanya didapati) di Borneo. Kami berkumpul 43 rekod, di mana hanya 20 (Model Seimbang) atau 24 (Model yang ditapis secara spasial) rekod digunakan untuk membina model kesesuaian habitat. Dengan menggunakan model ini, kami meramalkan habitat sesuai untuk Musang Hitam Pudar tertumpu kepada bahagain pertengahan Borneo yang berbukit-bukau, bersamaan dengan bahagian utara kompleks "Heart of Borneo". Walaupun terdapat beberapa kawasan terlindung yang bertaburan di dalam kompleks ini, kebanyakan kawasan terlindung ini tidak diurus dengan cekap; malah kebanyakannya menghadapi masalah pembalakan, penerokaan, pemburuan dan perlombongan secara haram. Kawasan di sekeliling kompleks ini terdiri daripada konsesi pembalakan, dan kebanyakan konsesi ini mungkin akan ditukar kepada kawasan perladangan di mana tiada bukti Musang Hitam Pudar boleh hidup. Untuk memastikan pemuliharaan spesis ini, lebih banyak kajian secara mendalam dan pemantauan dengan menggunakan perangkap kamera, perlu dilakukan di seluruh Borneo. Kajian yang mendalam perlu dilakukan di semua jenis habitat untuk memperbaiki model yang sedia ada supaya dapat memberi maklumat yang lebih manfaat kepada rancangan pemuliharaan spesis ini. Sehingga lebih banyak maklumat didapati, tindakan yang sewajarnya perlu diambil seperti penguatkuasaan undang-undang hidupan liar dan meningkatkan rondaan di sekitar kawasan-kawasan terlindung, serta menggalakkan amalan perhutanan yang berkekalan (sustainable) di konsesi-konsesi balak di sekeliling.

Wildlife monitoring technology is advancing rapidly and the use of remote sensors such as camera traps and acoustic detectors is becoming common in both the terrestrial and marine environments. Current methods to estimate abundance or density require individual recognition of animals or knowing the distance of the animal from the sensor, which is often difficult. A method without these requirements, the random encounter model (REM), has been successfully applied to estimate animal densities from count data generated from camera traps. However, count data from acoustic detectors do not fit the assumptions of the REM due to the directionality of animal signals.

We developed a generalised REM (gREM), to estimate absolute animal density from count data from both camera traps and acoustic detectors. We derived the gREM for different combinations of sensor detection widths and animal signal widths (a measure of directionality). We tested the accuracy and precision of this model using simulations of different combinations of sensor detection widths and animal signal widths, number of captures, and models of animal movement.

We find that the gREM produces accurate estimates of absolute animal density for all combinations of sensor detection widths and animal signal widths. However, larger sensor detection and animal signal widths were found to be more precise. While the model is accurate for all capture efforts tested, the precision of the estimate increases with the number of captures. We found no effect of different animal movement models on the accuracy and precision of the gREM.

We conclude that the gREM provides an effective method to estimate absolute animal densities from remote sensor count data over a range of sensor and animal signal widths. The gREM is applicable for count data obtained in both marine and terrestrial environments, visually or acoustically (e.g., big cats, sharks, birds, echolocating bats and cetaceans). As sensors such as camera traps and acoustic detectors become more ubiquitous, the gREM will be increasingly useful for monitoring unmarked animal populations across broad spatial, temporal and taxonomic scales.

Selective logging is one of the most widespread disturbances to tropical forests worldwide, yet its impacts on large mammals remain poorly understood. We used camera trapping and hierarchical models to compare local abundance of a variety of terrestrial mammal species in Borneo between selectively logged and unlogged forest, and to assess the impacts of edge effects. Our methods circumvent confounding factors that have plagued previous assessments of logging impacts by explicitly accounting for differential detection probability among habitats, separating the effects of hunting from those of logging-induced habitat disturbance, and explicitly measuring the distances over which edge effects occur. We found that mam-malian carnivore species were either largely or completely confined to primary forest, although habitat use for the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) increased toward the ecotone. Several large ungulates, however, were either completely (elephant Elephas maximus and banteng Bos javanicus) or mostly (sam-bar Rusa unicolor) found in logged forest. This suggests that, in the absence of hunting, disturbed habitats can be important for the conservation of certain endangered and vulnerable species. Sambar and munt-jac (Muntiacus spp.) both strongly avoided habitat edge in logged forest and primary forest, respectively. Lower habitat use by these species persisted 2-4 km from the habitat boundary-farther than has been observed for the infiltration of other edge effects such as canopy desiccation. Such avoidance of ecotones implies that 20-40% of the intact primary forest habitat in our study area is actually degraded "edge habitat" from the point of view of primary forest specialists. Our results suggest that, while selectively logged forests retain conservation value for certain large mammal species, it is critical that thresholds in logging intensity be identified so as to avoid declines in habitat use by taxa, such as carnivores, which appear intolerant of intensive logging pressure.

Effective conservation and management of primates depend on our ability to accurately assess and monitor populations through research. Camera traps are proving to be useful tools for studying a variety of primate species, in diverse and often difficult habitats. Here, we discuss the use of camera traps in primatology to survey rare species, assess populations, and record behavior. We also discuss methodological considerations for primate studies, including camera trap research design, inherent biases, and some limitations of camera traps. We encourage other primatologists to use transparent and standardized methods, and when appropriate to consider using occupancy framework to account for imperfect detection, and complementary techniques, e.g., transect counts, interviews, behavioral observation, to ensure accuracy of data interpretation. In addition, we address the conservation implications of camera trapping, such as using data to inform industry, garner public support, and contri...

In the current context of biodiversity loss through habitat fragmentation, the effectiveness of wildlife crossings, installed at great expense as compensatory measures, is of vital importance for ecological and socioeconomic actors. The evaluation of these structures is directly impacted by the efficiency of monitoring tools (camera traps…), which are used to assess the effectiveness of these crossings by observing the animals that use them. The aim of this study was to quantify the efficiency of camera traps in a wildlife crossing evaluation. Six permanent recording video systems sharing the same field of view as six Reconyx HC600 camera traps installed in three wildlife underpasses were used to assess the exact proportion of missed events (event being the presence of an animal within the field of view), and the error rate concerning underpass crossing behavior (defined as either Entry or Refusal). A sequence of photographs was triggered by either animals (true trigger) or artefacts (false trigger). We quantified the number of false triggers that had actually been caused by animals that were not visible on the images ("false" false triggers). Camera traps failed to record 43.6% of small mammal events (voles, mice, shrews, etc.) and 17% of medium-sized mammal events. The type of crossing behavior (Entry or Refusal) was incorrectly assessed in 40.1% of events, with a higher error rate for entries than for refusals. Among the 3.8% of false triggers, 85% of them were "false" false triggers. This study indicates a global underestimation of the effectiveness of wildlife crossings for small mammals. Means to improve the efficiency are discussed.

K E Y W O R D S camera trapping, false trigger, monitoring study, small mammals, triggered cameras, wildlife crossings

The Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi is a medium sized (15-25 kg) cat, found only on the Sundaic islands of Borneo and Sumatra. In recent years intensive camera-trapping surveys in Borneo have begun to shed light on the habitat associations and basic ecology of this elusive wild cat, but its distribution on an island-wide scale remains very poorly known. Such information is an essential element in the assessment of the Sunda clouded leopard's conservation status and in the development of conservation action. In this paper we use MaxEnt niche distribution modelling to make predictions regarding the current distribution of this cat on Borneo. We collected a total of 259 occurrence records for the Sunda clouded leopard, stemming from all Bornean regions apart from Brunei and South Kalimantan, of which 48 (Balanced Model) or 94 (Spatial Filtering Model) were used in our modelling. Our habitat suitability model suggests that this species has a widespread distribution over a large contiguous portion of Borneo. The only exception is South Kalimantan, which is predicted largely to comprise unsuitable habitat. The predicted distribution closely follows the current distribution of little-encroached forest on Borneo (including selectively logged and unlogged areas). The species is notably predicted to be absent from the extensive areas of oil palm plantation, particularly in much of the low-lying coastal land. The predicted range encompasses a large proportion of the existing and proposed protected area network on Borneo. We highlight the priority areas for the conservation of the Sunda clouded leopard in Borneo based on our predicted distribution.

Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Macan Dahan adalah jenis kucing liar yang berukuran sedang (15-25 kg) yang hanya ditemukan di Dataran Sunda seperti Borneo dan Sumatera. Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, survey intensif menggunakan kamera trap telah mulai menjelaskan asosiasi habitat dan ekologi dasar jenis kucing liar ini, tetapi data sebaran jenis ini pada skala keseluruhan pulau masih sangat kurang. Informasi tersebut merupakan informasi penting untuk menilai status konservasi Macan Dahan dan untuk mengembangkan aksi konservasi yang diperlukan. Dalam penelitian ini kami menggunakan pemodelan sebaran niche MaxEnt untuk membuat prediksi sebaran kucing liar ini di Borneo. Secara keseluruhan kami mengumpulkan 259 catatan kehadiran Macan Dahan di Borneo yang berasal dari Brunei hingga Kalimantan Selatan, dimana 48 (Model Penyeimbang) dan 94 (Model Spasial Tersaring digunakan dalam pemodelan. Hasil analisis pemodelan kesesuaian habitat menunjukkan bahwa jenis ini memiliki sebaran yang luas di Borneo. Satu-satunya pengecualian untuk daerah Kalimantan Selatan yang sebagian besar diprediksi tidak sesuai untuk habitat. Prediksi sebaran jenis ini meliputi sebagian besar kawasan lindung dan kawasan yang diusulkan sebagai kawasan lindung di Borneo. Berdasarkan prediksi distribusi, kami menyusun kawasan prioritas untuk konservasi Macan Dahan di Borneo. Abstrak (Bahasa Malaysia). Harimau Dahan Sunda Neofelis diardi adalah kucing liar yang sederhana besar (15-25 kg). Ia hanya dijumpai di Borneo dan Sumatra di kepulauan Sunda. Sejak beberapa tahun kebelakangan ini, pemantauan yang intensif dengan menggunakan perangkap kamera di Borneo mula memberi maklumat tentang perkaitan habitat dan ekologi asas kucing liar yang sukar ditemui ini; tetapi pengetahuan tentang taburan kucing ini di Borneo masih sangat sedikit yang diketahui. Maklumat taburan ini merupakan elemen penting untuk menilai status pemuliharaan harimau dahan dan bagi pembentukan pelan pemuliharaan spesis ini. Dalam kajian ini, kami menggunakan pendekatan model taburan ceruk (niche) MaxEnt untuk membuat ramalan berkenaan taburan terkini harimau dahan di Borneo. Kami mengumpulkan sejumlah 259 rekod penemuan Harimau Dahan Sunda dari seluruh bahagian Borneo kecuali dari Brunei dan Kalimantan Selatan di mana 48 (Model Seimbang) dan 94 (Model yang ditapis secara spasial) rekod sesuai digunakan untuk tujuan pembentukan model. Model kesesuaian habitat kami menunjukkan bahawa Harimau Dahan Sunda mempunyai taburan yang meluas di sebahagian besar Borneo dengan pengecualian di Kalimantan Selatan, yang diramalkan sebahagian besarnya terdiri daripada habitat yang tidak sesuai untuk spesis ini. Taburan yang diramal ini menyamai taburan hutan terkini yang masih berada dalam keadaan baik di Borneo (termasuk hutan yang dibalak secara terpilih dan hutan yang belum dibalak), dan spesis ini diramalkan tidak terdapat di kawasan ladang kelapa sawit yang luas terutamanya di kawasan tanah rendah pesisiran pantai.

The Sunda clouded leopard Neofelis diardi is a medium sized (15–25 kg) cat, found only on the Sundaic islands of Borneo and Sumatra. In recent years intensive camera-trapping surveys in Borneo have begun to shed light on the habitat associations and basic ecology of this elusive wild cat, but its distribution on an island-wide scale remains very poorly known. Such information is an essential element in the assessment of the Sunda clouded leopard&#39;s conservation status and in the development of conservation action. In this paper we use MaxEnt niche distribution modelling to make predictions regarding the current distribution of this cat on Borneo. We collected a total of 259 occurrence records for the Sunda clouded leopard, stemming from all Bornean regions apart from Brunei and South Kalimantan, of which 48 (Balanced Model) or 94 (Spatial Filtering Model) were used in our modelling. Our habitat suitability model suggests that this species has a widespread distribution over a larg...

Many studies have demonstrated the importance of terrestrial mammal fauna to ecosystem functioning and services. To date, however, few studies of mammal abundance in Trinidad and Tobago have been conducted. Our main objective here was to compare the relative abundance (RA) of agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina), an important bushmeat species, in a lowland, multi-use recreational forest surrounded
by urbanization, with a former plantation that is now a protected nature reserve containing upland secondary forest. We hypothesized that coarse-scale factors such as hunting, elevation, proximity to paved roads, and vegetation density, would affect the relative abundance of these two agouti populations. As part of the first pilot survey of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) on Trinidad, using the same camera setup, we deployed paired camera-trap stations at 10 sites in the recreational forest, and five sites in the smaller nature reserve, along a 1 km2 grid of each study site’s trail system between 24 June and 6 November 2016. To test the relative importance of these key ecological factors on agouti relative abundance, we conducted simple linear regressions of each covariate. We found that hunting was significantly associated with lower relative abundance of agouti (p<0.05), whereas increases in elevation had a significant positive effect on relative abundance of agouti (p<0.05). Interestingly, we also found a significant inverse relationship between agouti abundance and the proximity to paved roads (p<0.05), i.e., agouti’s relative abundance was greater at shorter distances or closer to paved roads. We also found no relationship between vegetation density and agouti relative abundance (p>0.05). We concluded that hunting, elevation, and proximity to paved roads, all significantly impact the relative abundance index (RAI) of local agouti populations.

From October-December 2013, we conducted a camera trap study of the newly discovered primate species lesula, Cercopithecus lomamiensis, in the Lomami River Basin, DR Congo. The primary aim of the study was to examine how lesula fares in the presence of uncontrolled bushmeat hunting. We placed 41 camera traps inside a 4-km2 grid located in the Yawende community conservation area outside the proposed Lomami National Park (LNP). We compared an analysis of 72 lesula events over 842 camera trap days from the heavily hunted Yawende site to a pilot camera trap study (38 lesula events over 462 camera trap days) at the Losekola study site within the LNP. Our data show an unexpected result: capture probability of lesula (0.08) is the same at both the hunted and non-hunted sites. This is in contrast to the sharp decline in capture probability of all other medium to large terrestrial mammals at the Yawende site. These findings suggest lesula’s cryptic behavior is an important adaptation buffering the species from the impact of hunting. However, hunting pressure on lesula may increase in the near future as hunters adjust effort in response to the decline of less cryptic prey species. Our study also expands knowledge on lesula’s diet, group composition, minimum group size, phenotypic traits, and home range. These findings represent the first new data on lesula since its discovery.

Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) and other wild cats are often surveyed using camera traps to identify individuals for density estimation via capture-recapture analyses or estimate occupancy via detection/non-detection analyses. Though attractants are sometimes used in such surveys, there have not been any evaluations of the effectiveness of common visual and olfactory attractants in field settings. As part of a medium and large mammal camera survey in the San Juan – La Selva Biological Corridor, Costa Rica, we integrated camera trap data within an occupancy modelling framework to estimate the effects of hanging compact disks (visual), cologne (olfactory), and sardines in oil (olfactory) on ocelot detection probabilities. Compact disks appeared to have the most information-theoretic model support, whereas cologne received less model support. The use of compact disks in surveys was also less time-consuming and less expensive than the olfactory at- tractants. Ocelots are visual hunters and using visual attractants can increase detection probabilities and therefore reduce uncertainty and/or reduce survey effort to obtain robust population or occu- pancy estimates, although using cologne might also have similar effects. Depending on logistic constraints, we recommend employing several attractants as the most appropriate way to survey ocelots and other rare felids in the future when detection biases are assumed to be strong, particu- larly as part of mammal community surveys.

The first camera-trapping study in the Maliau Basin Conservation Area of Malaysian Borneo, an area containing some of the last intact
rainforest in Southeast Asia, detected 13 small mammalian carnivore species over 2,915 camera-trap-nights, including three newly recorded
for the area: Banded Linsang Prionodon linsang, Masked Palm Civet Paguma larvata and Hose’s Civet Diplogale hosei. Hose’s
Civet, endemic to Borneo, is one of the least known carnivore species in Southeast Asia and possibly the world. Maliau is only the fifth
site where the species has been confirmed in Sabah. Camera-traps—deployed in three habitats: primary (unlogged) dipterocarp forest,
logged dipterocarp forest and tropical heath (kerangas) forest—detected more small carnivore species in primary dipterocarp forest than
in logged forest, despite similar sampling effort; data were too few to allow the estimation of meaningful habitat-specific detection probabilities.
The Malay Civet Viverra tangalunga was the small carnivore species detected most often overall, followed by Leopard Cat
Prionailurus bengalensis and Banded Palm Civet Hemigalus derbyanus. We did not detect Malay Civet or Leopard Cat in logged forest,
yet other studies suggest that they are common in disturbed areas. The paucity of records (only one) of the generally abundant Common
Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus is unusual. Ongoing monitoring at this and other sites across Borneo should help elucidate
patterns of small carnivore distribution and richness with respect to natural and anthropogenic variation in forest characteristics.

Daily and seasonal activity of the mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque was measured along trails and at two salt licks in mature and secondary montane forests of the Central Andes of Colombia using active and passive infrared monitors. Daily activity of the mountain tapir showed a clear bimodal pattern, with maxima during the early hours of the day (5:00–7:00) and early hours of the evening (18:00–20:00). This bimodal activity pattern has also been found in radio-tracking studies of T. terrestris and T. bairdii. Overall, there was more activity in mature than in secondary forest and at lower (3100 m) than higher altitudes (3600 m). Night-time activity was higher during full moon than during quarter and new moons. There was no correlation between monthly rainfall and seasonal activity. The time the mountain tapir was at the salt licks varied between 1 and 190 min. Daily activity at Quebrada Paraiso salt lick (3400 m) showed a clear bimodal pattern with maxima around midnight (0:00–2:00) and midday (11:00–14:00). These patterns of diurnal and nocturnal activity of the mountain tapir could be used in combination with future radio-tracking studies to better understand habitat use by this species.