Ecology of Bird Migration

Changes in climate, food abundance and disturbance from humans threaten the ability of species to successfully use stopover sites and migrate between non-breeding and breeding areas. To devise successful conservation strategies for migratory species we need to be able to predict how such changes will affect both individuals and populations. Such predictions should ideally be process-based, focusing on the mechanisms through which changes alter individual physiological state and behavior. In this study we use a process-based model to evaluate how Black Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) foraging on common eelgrass (Zostera marina) at a stopover site (Humboldt Bay, USA), may be affected by changes in sea level, food abundance and disturbance. The model is individual-based, with empirically based parameters, and incorporates the immigration of birds into the site, tidal changes in availability of eelgrass, seasonal and depth-related changes in eelgrass biomass, foraging behavior and energetics of the birds, and their mass-dependent decisions to emigrate. The model is validated by comparing predictions to observations across a range of system properties including the time birds spent foraging, probability of birds emigrating, mean stopover duration, peak bird numbers, rates of mass gain and distribution of birds within the site: all 11 predictions were within 35% of the observed value, and 8 within 20%. The model predicted that the eelgrass within the site could potentially support up to five times as many birds as currently use the site. Future predictions indicated that the rate of mass gain and mean stopover duration were relatively insensitive to sea level rise over the next 100 years, primarily because eelgrass habitat could redistribute shoreward into intertidal mudflats within the site to compensate for higher sea levels. In contrast, the rate of mass gain and mean stopover duration were sensitive to changes in total eelgrass biomass and the percentage of time for which birds were disturbed. We discuss the consequences of these predictions for Black Brant conservation. A wide range of migratory species responses are expected in response to environmental change. Process-based models are potential tools to predict such responses and understand the mechanisms which underpin them.

ECOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS AND EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN LAKE AYATA (OUED RIGH VALLEY: NORTHERN ALGERIAN SAHARA).
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ABSTRACT: Ayata Lake (155 ha) belongs to the complex of wetlands of Oued Righ Valley in Algerian Lower-Sahara. This study conducted between October 2009 and June 2010 has allowed a bioecological characterization of both biotic and abiotic elements of the site.
Flora and fauna Inventories have revealed existence of 13 plant species, 03 fish, 02 amphibians, 06 reptiles, 55 birds and 07 mammals. The flora of the site is mapped then the dynamics of dominant plant species is assessed by GIS software. Bio-ecological Statuses (faunal, trophic, phenological and protection) are attributed to the species surveyed and they are discussed. The spatiotemporal occupation of the lake by birds is mapped and detailed. Furthermore, this study includes a general review on wetlands ecosystems. Wetlands of the Lower-Sahara region (Ziban, Souf, valley of Oued Righ, and Ouargla) are inventoried, classified and mapped. This approach helped to highlight the biological resources of Ayata Lake and determine its actual ecological value. This can lead to propose suggestions for management and conservation close to its socioeconomic status in a sustainable development view.

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RÉSUMÉ: Le Lac Ayata (155 ha) appartient au complexe des zones humides de la Vallée d’Oued Righ au Bas-Sahara algérien. L’étude menée entre octobre 2009 et juin 2010 a permis une caractérisation bioécologique des éléments tant biotiques qu’abiotiques du site. Les inventaires de la flore et de la faune ont révélé l’existence de 13 espèces végétales, 03 poissons, 02 amphibiens, 06 reptiles, 55 oiseaux et 07 mammifères. La flore du site est cartographiée et la dynamique saisonnière des espèces dominantes est estimée par un logiciel de SIG. Des statuts bioécologiques (fauniques, trophiques, phénologiques et de protection) sont attribués aux espèces animales inventoriées puis ils sont discutés. L’occupation spatiotemporelle du lac par l’avifaune est cartographiée et détaillée. Par ailleurs, cette étude comporte des connaissances générales sur les des zones humides. Celles-ci sont inventoriées, classifiées puis cartographies dans la région du Bas-Sahara (Ziban, Souf, Vallée d’Oued Righ et Ouargla). Cette approche a permis de mettre en valeur les ressources biologiques du site et de déterminer son importance écologique. Ceci peut aboutir à des suggestions de gestion et de conservation étroites à son état socioéconomique dans une prospection d’un développement durable.

Le Chott de Djendli (3700 ha) appartient au complexe des zones humides Sud-constantinoises. L’étude menée de février 2006 à mars 2007 nous a permis la caractérisation bioécologique des éléments tant biotiques qu’abiotiques du site. Elle nous a également permis d’avoir un aperçu sur son importance, en étudiant et en suivant plusieurs paramètres physico-chimiques du sol et de l’eau ainsi que la richesse floristique et faunistique. En effet, nous avons déterminé le…

Avian diversity is used to assess the functionality of diverse types of habitats around Salt Lake Djendli, Northeast Algeria. The landscape is stratified into five habitat types in a gradient from wetland to forested mountains. Bird species found in these habitats can be classified into four ecological groups with decreasing degrees of aquatic specialisation and increasing forest specialisation. For each surveyed species, five ecological status were assigned. Overall, there was lower species richness in urban areas compared to other “natural” habitats. Birds have a biogeographical affinity to the western Palaearctic according to the dominant faunal types. Interactions of ecological status with phenological traits reveal that water birds are different from non-aquatic species because most of them are migrants. Moreover, overall, there is no worrying conservation status for surveyed birds. Bird diet is dependent on the ecological status that differentiate bird groups from each other due to differences in the food resources of the habitats they frequent. Phenological categories tend to link together birds of urban and open-lands. These two groups are affected by seasonal human activities. Our findings emphasise the importance of using combinations within the birds’ ecological status, which would give information on the actual state of avifauna. This approach is relevant for future programmes and conservation actions.

Riassunto – Si presenta la prima checklist della Basilicata aggiornata al 31 Maggio 2008. Le informazioni riguardanti l'avifauna lucana sono ancora molto scarse e frammentarie a causa del basso sforzo di ricerca effettuato nella regione. Si ritiene per-tanto estremamente utile fornire un primo contributo che sintetizzi lo stato attuale delle conoscenze, al fine di ottenere uno strumento di supporto ad eventuali ricerche future. Abstract – Checklist of the birds of the Region Basilicata updated to May 2008.  Information on the birds of the Region Basilicata is very scanty because of the low intensity of research in region. We present the first work that synthesize the actual knowledge status.

This paper presents an overview of patterns in the primary moult of waders using the Eurasian–African migration
system and updates earlier summaries with results obtained from the Underhill–Zucchini moult models (1988,
1990). Recent applications of these models allow researchers to examine moult timing down to the progress
of an individual feather in a tract and to determine the effects of environmental factors on moult. Waders
present a wide variety of inter- and intra-specific strategies for their primary moult, an energy-costly activity
they must fit in with breeding and migration, the other main energy-demanding events in their life cycle. Here
I present the moult strategies of waders in the context of their age, size, sex and annual variation in breeding
success, seasonal food abundance, the latitude where they moult, the distance they migrate, the habitats they
use, and the rainfall patterns and temperatures at their moulting grounds. I also discuss how moult is adjusted
to these factors. This overview emphasises the flexibility of many waders’ moult strategies as an adaptation
to the unpredictable food supply provided by ephemeral inland wetlands and compares these strategies with
those of populations that use predictable coastal habitats. Discovering the mechanisms that allow waders to
adjust their genetically controlled and hormonally regulated moult to proximate factors is suggested as one of
the challenges in further studies of moult.

We studied variations in the size of breeding colonies and in breeding performance of White Storks Ciconia ciconia in 2006–2008 in north-east Algeria. Each colony site was characterized using 12 environmental variables describing the physical environment, land-cover categories, and human activities, and by three demographic parameters: the number of breeding pairs, the number of pairs with chicks, and the number of fledged chicks per pair. Generalized linear mixed models and the self-organizing map algorithm (SOM, neural network) were used to investigate effects of biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic factors on demographic parameters and on their relationships. Numbers of breeding pairs and of pairs with chicks were affected by the same environmental factors, mainly anthropogenic, which differed from those affecting the number of fledged chicks per pair. Numbers of fledged chicks per pair was not affected by colony size or by the number of nests with chicks. The categorization of the environmental variables into natural and anthropogenic, in connection with demographic parameters, was relevant to detect factors explaining variation in colony size and breeding parameters. The SOM proved a relevant tool to help determine actual dynamics in White Stork colonies, and thus to support effective conservation decisions at a regional scale.

First arrival dates (FAD) of 45 migratory bird species recorded in Moravia (Czech Republic, c. 49º N) in 109 spring seasons between 1881 and 2007 were correlated with the preceding winter (December to March) North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index. The arrival of birds occurred significantly earlier following high NAO winter index values (those result in spring warmer than normal in central Europe) in all short-distance migratory species with a European or North African winter range, whereas the arrival timing did not correlate with the seasonal NAO index in long-distance migrants having sub-Saharan winter range. When the values of Pearson coefficient between NAO and FAD were correlated with the migration distance of all 45 bird species, the correlation was remarkable and significant (p<0.001): r = 0.848 for the distance to central locations of winter range, and r = 0.822 for the northern limits of the wintering area. The migration distance was thus responsible for 68-72% of variation in the regression of birds' arrival on NAO winter index in central Europe. The data are robust (this is the longest avian phenological record analyzed for correlation with NAO in Europe), and indicate different mechanisms that govern timing between short-distance and long-distance migrants in their departure from wintering areas.

Assessing diet composition of White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) breeding under North African conditions provides key information to understanding its trophic niche for conservation purpose. Since, climate controls productivities of foraging habitats and thus food availability for predators, this study examines how Storks’ diet parameters varied following a climate gradient along with rural-to-urban landscapes in north-eastern Algeria. Feeding strategies to cope with severe conditions were discussed in light of climate aridity and urbanization, and how these influence reproduction, population dynamics and distribution. While invertebrate prey accounted for 94% of ingested individuals, the biomass intake was dominated by chicken remains scavenged from rubbish dumps (67%) and small mammals (14%). Generalized linear models revealed that prey numbers varied significantly between climatic regions and landscapes types, but no significant differences were observed for other dietary parameters, including prey biomass. The study showed high dietary similarity between study climates and landscapes, mainly among rural and urban colonies located in semi-arid and sub-humid areas, which differed from those in suburban and arid climate. Rarefaction and extrapolation curves indicated that prey species richness in White Stork diets was expected to be higher in urban colonies located in sub-humid climate. Despite low prey species diversity in arid regions, the White Stork demonstrates a broad trophic niche, which could be due to supplementary feeding from human refuse. This study suggests that, regardless of the climate or landscape, White Storks ensure a constant food intake, despite prey biomass fluctuations, by adapting their diet. Foraging in diverse habitats, including trash dumps, ensures a sufficiently balanced diet to meet nutritional requirements.

Multiple tracking methods (colour-rings, plumage-markings and GPS-loggers) revealed that adult Sandwich Terns Thalasseus sandvicensis from the Netherlands showed prospecting behaviour in other colonies within Northwest Europe. Birds were recorded from a few kilometres to over 850 km away and in different countries around the Southern North Sea. Our data suggest large-scale connectivity between Northwest European Sandwich Tern colonies. Such connectivity is potentially of great importance when modelling the population structure of this species.

Following the publication of the book A complete guide to the birds of Malta, which revised the status of all species and included several new species to the list of birds of Malta, another 11 new species have been added: Amur Falcon, Lesser Yellowlegs, Common Eider, Bonaparte’s Gull, Oriental Turtle Dove, Red-flanked Bluetail, Atlas Pied Flycatcher, Citrine Wagtail, Black-throated Thrush, Twite and Bobolink. The species have been observed alive in the field or found as specimens in local carefully checked collections.

Research in the Netherlands knows a long history in bird
tracking studies. In this introduction to the special issue of
Limosa on bird tracking, we provide an overview of different
bird tracking techniques, and their use in the
Netherlands. Also studies were considered in which
birds tagged abroad passed or ended up in the Netherlands. We identified an impressive amount of Dutch tracking studies. Radio transmitters have been used most frequently, mainly for studies focussing on local behaviour (e.g. habitat use). For migration studies researchers relied on (gps-based) satellite telemetry and, recently, light-level geolocation. Modern gps-loggers like the UvA-BiTS and e-obs are currently the most advanced tracking systems, and because of the plethora of accurate data these systems provide, they have been used for both local habitat use and migration studies. More complex tracking systems, such as Encounternet and TOA have only been used by specialised institutions. Tracking studies have enormously boosted our understanding of the behaviour and movements of birds, both at the local and global scale.

Check-list of the birds of the Rupinaro creek. In an area corresponding to the course of the Rupinaro creek (GE), the surrounding hills and other adjacent areas, over four years, from June 2010 to June 2014, the bird community has been studied drafting a preliminary check-list. Globally 114 species were determined 20 of which included in Annex 1 of the Birds Directive (09/147/CE). Much of the study area is highly urbanized and compromised by human activities. The study has highlighted
the importance of the area for migratory birds but also for nesting; in fact, 30% of the species observed in the area are breeding.

The White Sea ornithological expedition took place between 21st September and 10th October,
and was organized by Finnish Environment Institute as a part of RECMAB project (Research,
Conservation and Monitoring Project of Migratory Arctic Birds on the Baltic Sea and White Sea).
The aim of RECMAB is to identify the most important congregating areas of migratory arctic
waterbids in the Baltic Sea and White Sea.
The expedition team found many important congregating areas of which at least one was evidently
unknown previously. Studies during the expedition suggested that remarkable congregating
areas also exist in the vicinity of the White Sea Channel and the Kanin Peninsula. Transect
line counts revealed that the densities of staging birds on the sea outside congregating areas
were generally low.
During the expedition a lot of data on patterns of arctic bird migration was gathered; e.g. on
daily rhythm, directions, routes, magnitude, and timing of migration. There were obvious differences
between species in the dynamics and magnitude of migration. Some species fly in broad
fronts, while others tend to follow coast lines. In general, more birds were seen migrating in the
morning, although some species continued to migrate actively throughout the day.
The expedition was carried out by ship. Compared to aeroplane, that has also been used for research
on congregating areas of arctic birds, ship has some benefits: lower costs, long observation
times for each recorded individual, and good changes to detect more elusive and more sparsely
distributed species. On the other hand, ship is slow, and areas of shallow waters, which are
important for many arctic waterbirds as staging areas, can not be reached by ship. Intensive aerial
surveys are essential for research into important congregating areas in large sea areas.

The life cycles of plants and animals are changing around the world in line with the predictions originated from hypotheses concerning the impact of global warming and climate change on biological systems. Commonly, the search for ecological mechanisms behind the observed changes in bird phenology has focused on the analysis of climatic patterns from the species breeding grounds. However, the ecology of bird migration suggests that the spring arrival of long‐distance migrants (such as trans‐Saharan birds) is more likely to be influenced by climate conditions in wintering areas given their direct impact on the onset of migration and its progression. We tested this hypothesis by analysing the first arrival dates (FADs) of six trans‐Saharan migrants (cuckoo Cuculus canorus, swift Apus apus, hoopoe Upupa epops, swallow Hirundo rustica, house martin Delichon urbica and nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos), in a western Mediterranean area since from 1952 to 2003. By means of multiple regression analyses, FADs were analysed in relation to the monthly temperature and precipitation patterns of five African climatic regions south of the Sahara where species are thought to overwinter and from the European site from where FADs were collected. We obtained significant models for five species explaining 9–41% of the variation in FADs. The interpretation of the models suggests that: (1) The climate in wintering quarters, especially the precipitation, has a stronger influence on FADs than that in the species' potential European breeding grounds. (2) The accumulative effects of climate patterns prior to migration onset may be of considerable importance since those climate variables that served to summarize climate patterns 12 months prior to the onset of migration were selected by final models. (3) Temperature and precipitation in African regions are likely to affect departure decision in the species studied through their indirect effects on food availability and the build‐up of reserves for migration. Our results concerning the factors that affect the arrival times of trans‐Saharan migrants indicate that the effects of climate change are more complex than previously suggested, and that these effects might have an interacting impact on species ecology, for example by reversing ecological pressures during species' life cycles.

The impact of climate change on the bird communities of Asia is poorly understood. Since the 1950s, the Japanese Meteorology Agency has recorded first arrival (i.e. first sighting) and first singing for a selection of resident (Alauda arvensis, Cettia diphone, and Lanius bucephalus) and migratory species (Hirundo rustica and Cuculus canorus) in more than 300 bird populations. First records (i.e. first sighting or singing) show a delay of 5.4 d since the end of the 1970s. Nevertheless, there is a marked heterogeneity in the temporal trends among populations in each species. Most populations of A. arvensis, C. diphone and H. rustica show a negative relationship with local temperature (i.e. first records were earlier in warmer years) and this sensitivity to temperatures has increased in recent decades. Exploration of the possible causes of variability in phenological trends among populations demonstrated that greater delays were observed in those populations subjected to smaller increases in local temperature and a greater increase in human population (a surrogate for the conservation status of bird populations). Therefore, declining bird populations are the most probable cause of the observed delay in the phenology of first individuals. Migratory species were affected by climate in their wintering and passage areas. Overall, first sightings of H. rustica were earlier, while the onset of singing by C. canorus was delayed in response to warmer temperatures in southeastern Asia. However, there was a noteworthy variability among populations, with no discernable regionalization or spatial organization. This suggests that there is no clear connectivity between breeding and wintering populations.

KEY WORDS: Arrival date · Heat island effect · Long-term study · Migratory birds · Phenology · Singing onset · Temperature · Warming

We radio-tracked Summer Tanagers (Piranga rubra) at a Gulf coast stopover site to study en route activity budgets. Tanagers were inactive a majority of the time, with scanning, foraging, and preening being the next most commonly observed activities. When foraging, tanagers primarily used sallying to capture a variety of insect prey. Possible explanations for inactivity during stopover include the need for rest following
prolonged flight, muscle repair, reduced digestive capacity, and the short distance remaining to the breeding grounds.

Alap-alap Capung (Microhierax fringillarius) merupakan raptor terkecil dari famili Falconidae. Burung ini memangsa serangga sebagai makanan utamanya, terkadang memakan burung-burung kecil seperti walet, bondol, dan burung-madu. Catatan dari Kacip, kawah Gunung Baluran, Situbondo, Jawa Timur ini menjelaskan tentang temuan mangsa terbesar Alap-alap Capung yaitu Pelanduk Topi-hitam (Pellorneum capistratum).

Aim Still poorly understood, the main migratory pathways for most trans‐Saharan species pass through the Iberian Peninsula, which acts as a gateway to the European–African migratory system. Arrival patterns in this region for the common swift (Apus apus) and barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), of similar morphology and flight capabilities, were described, and the environmental and geographical factors best explaining them were examined, in a search for common ecological constraints on these two migratory species.

Location Latitude ranged from 36.02 to 43.68°N, longitude from 9.05°W to 3.17°E, and altitude from 0 to 1595 m a.s.l. for 482 common swift and 812 barn swallow Spanish localities spread widely over the Iberian breeding grounds of the two species.

Methods Our data set, covering the years 1960–1990, consisted of 3206 first‐arrival dates for common swifts and 6036 for barn swallows. Forty topographical, climatic, river basin, geographical and spatial variables were used as explanatory variables in general regression models (GRMs). GRMs included polynomial terms up to cubic functions in all variables when they were significant. A backward stepwise selection procedure was applied in all models until only significant terms remained. GRMs were applied in two steps. First, we searched for the best model in each one of the five types of variables (topographical, climatic, river basin, geographical and spatial). To cope with the unavoidable correlation between explanatory variables, the relative importance of each type of variable was assessed by hierarchical variance partitioning. Secondly, we searched for that model able to explain the maximum amount of the observed variability in arrival date. To obtain this model all significant explanatory variables were subjected jointly to a GRM. Spatial variables were then added to this model to take any remaining spatial structure in the data into account. Moran's I autocorrelation coefficient was used to check for spatial autocorrelation.

Results Both species arrived earlier in the south‐western Iberian Peninsula, where summers are warmer and drier. From there, both species followed the main southern Iberian river basins towards the north‐east; however, several mountainous regions impede the colonization of eastern Iberia. The best models for each type of variable explained 19–47% of the variability in common swift arrival dates and 14–44% in barn swallow arrival dates. Variance partitioning indicated that climatic and geographical variables best explained variability. The best predictive models built with all variables accounted for 52% of the variability in common swift arrival dates and 50% for the barn swallow. Residuals from both models were not spatially autocorrelated, an indication that all major spatially structured variation had been accounted for.

Main conclusions Spring arrival patterns are highly dependent on the geographical configuration of the Iberian Peninsula. This spatial constraint forces both species to converge very closely in their spring migration, because common swifts and barn swallows are subject to a trade‐off between optimum migratory pathways and territories ecologically suitable for breeding.

An intensive migratory route of the Crane passes
through the interfluve of the Dnieper River and
Molochna River in the north-northeast direction
during spring passage and the southwest-south
direction during autumn passage. The most of
migratory birds make a stopover in the Biosphere Reserve «Askania Nova» and its
surroundings with maximum concentration numbers about 44 thousand individuals.
There is a shift in timing of passage to an earlier start in spring and a later end in
autumn, also occur occasional winterings of small flocks of the Common Crane.
The one-time accidental visit of 5 individuals of the Siberian White Crane and their
stay in the Common Crane's flocks during 9 days were registered.
The Demoiselle Crane is a bird of passage and nesting species in the region which
does not form large concentrations within the reserve.
Excessive hunting pressure is a main factor for spatial distribution of cranes in the
reserve's region which results in very numerous concentrations of flocks within the
protected areas.
Key words: migration, Crane, biosphere reserve, population dynamics

The role of depression ecosystems  in  the  formation  of  avifauna  of  a  region  is  shown  on  empirical  material.  It  is determined that the area of lands is a priority factor when determining of ornithofaunistic wealth of depressions. The distance between nearest depression ecosystem has nimportant sense. Ratio of stations  within  each  concrete  depression  conditions  theirornithofaunistic  similarity,  which contributes to the formation of local migration flows. The significance of these flows is different
for different taxa. Reserved regime and duration of existence of the water surface are the main
limiting factors of taxonomic diversity of birds.

We investigated diet and nesting morphometric in a population of reed warbler (Acrocephalus sciepaceus) living near the lake of Reghaia, North of Algeria. Diet was estimated by analysis of fecal samples (34 feces) During the year 2014-2015. Faecal samples were collected and treated separately in 70% alcohol to identify prey-species. In total, 181 prey items of 55 different species were found classified into 5 classes, 12 orders and 39 families. Insects were the most dominant preys (87.85%), followed by Arachnida (7.18%). The basic component of the diet was Hymenoptera (33.15%), followed by Coleoptera (14,92%), Diptera (11.05%) then Homoptera (9.94%) and Heteroptera (8.29%). Concerning the nesting morphometric analysis, the measuring of 14 nests leads to find an external diameter varying between 64 and 90 mm, an inner diameter fluctuating between 43 and 70 mm , and a height between 55 and 95 mm The distance between the nests and the ground through, varied between 0.98 and 2.94 m. The nests were placed on Phragmites communis.

Do Reeves make different choices? Meadow selection by spring staging Ruffs Philomachus pugnax in Southwest Friesland

Each spring Ruffs stop over in large numbers in the northern part of the Netherlands, especially in Southwest Friesland. While staging, Ruffs use meadows for feeding and refuelling. A general believe is that they are attracted by the typical Dutch wet peat grasslands, with a diverse vegetation situated in an open landscape. We wanted to test this idea and to explore whether the assumed different flyways of the sexes could be related to sexual dimorphism, e.g. whether the smaller, shorter-billed females use other habitats than the males. This paper describes which meadow characteristics are correlated with meadow use and how meadow use differs between ruffs and reeves. In April and May 2003, 125 meadows in Southwest Friesland were monitored for five weeks. The total number of Ruffs decreased over the season, which is consistent with published region-wide counts. Relatively few females passed through: only in late April, when total numbers were low, the proportion females exceeded 10%. To find correlations with meadow use, 13 scored meadow characteristics were used in a multiple logistic regression model. Grass height and distance to the nearest roost proved most important (included in the model in four weeks): used meadows were closer to a roost and had shorter vegetation than unused meadows. Vegetation type, soil type, drainage level, openness of landscape and fertilisation freshness correlated with meadow use in two or three weeks. Percent flooding, fertilisation method, presence of grazers, vegetation evenness, relief and meadow size were never included in the model. The expected reference for peat meadows was not found: sand and clay soils were used more. As expected, ‘wet’ meadows and meadows in an open landscape were used more often than heavily drained meadows or meadows near buildings or trees from where predators may launch surprise attacks. Grass monocultures were least used, but the most used vegetation type was not rich but intermediately diverse in herbs. Females seem to be more extreme in meadow choice than males: groups with females used meadows that were drained less deep (thus wetter) and situated closer to the nearest roost than meadows with male-only groups. Groups with females were also more common in peat grasslands. We found indications that the sex-related differences in meadow use may be related to differences in feeding behaviour. Females foraged with higher pacing speeds. more females than males ate insects, but females had lower intake rates. Also when eating buried prey like earthworms and leatherjackets, intake rates in females were lower, although probing rates were equal. Females likely use other flyways: the proportion of females passing through this Dutch stopover site was very low compared with an important eastern European stopover site in Ukraine. At this point we can not yet decide whether this results from a difference in habitat preference induced by the size difference between the sexes or whether competition forces the females out of preferred, rich feeding sites.

Comparative study was conducted to evaluate the economic benefit of pond aquaculture with and without cage. Channa punctata was stocked in cages where as carps were stocked in ponds. C. punctata in the cages were fed with chicken waste (with crude protein of 63.04%) @ 2% of body weight and the carps in pond were not provided any supplementary diet. However carps in pond, without cage, were fed with supplementary diet (with crude protein of 26.92%) @ of 1% of body weight. In addition to C. punctata reared in cages the growth of carps was 13.93% higher in pond with cage as compared to pond without cage. The pond cage aquaculture provides 32.12% of additional gross income in comparison to the pond without cage. The utilization of slaughter house waste helps in waste utilization, improvement of environment and reduces the feed cost. Pond cage aquaculture shows the avenue of maximization of income from the same unit of water body.

West Nile encephalitis virus, like its cousin St. Louis encephalitis, can be high- or low-pathogenic depending on the bird hosts it has cycled through by virtue of Culex mosquito vectors. Flycatchers, Vireo, Warbler and other rare songbirds tend to have the opposite effect of super-spreaders. Taking out habitat is generally a bad idea.

In the 1950s, much farmland in California's San Joaquin Valley was converted from deciduous lowland riparian forest. These areas had been home to an impressive diversity of known endemic bird hosts. Epidemic activity has followed destruction of their habitat, and subsided where their habitat is restored.

Even though singing plays a major role in bird communication, environmental variables affecting the geographic patterns observed in the variation of singing onset within large areas have not previously been studied. The singing phenology of two long-distance migrants, the Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and the Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos, recorded in thousands of sites throughout Spain, was related to a set of 51 explanatory variables by partial least squares regression. Observed variability in singing onset among localities follows spatial trends on an Iberian scale at 10 × 10 km resolution, and was well modelled by some environmental variables. Of these variables, climate was the most influential. Males of both species sang earlier in warmer and drier sites. Males who were near the Straits of Gibraltar and in the southern Iberian basins, which are geographic gradients closely related with climate in the Iberian Peninsula, were also heard earlier. Most environmental variables affected the singing activity of both species equally, i.e., the same environmental gradients are linked to singing onset. However, the models' predictions indicated differences in the geographical pattern in singing onset between both species, mainly related to their rates of progression during spring migration through Spain. Local variables, such as land uses, vegetation productivity or species abundance, played a minor role on singing onset spatial patterns. Therefore, models' composition supports the hypothesis that singing onset is a good proxy of arrival dates in migratory species, since those variables related to indirect effects on singing onset phenology through migratory progression and arrival to the breeding grounds showed the highest influence.

Deuterium composition of feathers has been widely applied to establish provenance of birds. Surprisingly, little attention has been paid to the potential sources of unwanted hydrogen isotopic variability that may affect the comparability and replicabil-ity of deuterium measurements. Feathers may exhibit hydrogen isotopic differences between distal and proximal sections, as well as between rachis and vane. For this reason, it is recommended to always analyse ground vane from the same section of the feather. However, this protocol may be seriously limiting when working with songbird feathers, which are usually small and light. In this paper, intra-feather hydrogen isotopic variability was studied in four species of songbirds by comparing four sections of the same feather. No difference in hydrogen isotopic composition was found between distal and proximal sections of the vane. This was expected as songbird feathers grow rapidly and individuals avoid geographical movements during moult, favouring a homogeneous source of hydrogen during keratin synthesis. Conversely, as previously demonstrated for other avian species, rachis showed systematically c. 11‰ δ 2 H more negative values than vane. This is probably a result of their biochemical and ultrastructural differences, which seem strongly conserved across taxa. Such differences imply that we need to describe which feather part was used in the methods of our reports to ensure full comparability and replicability among studies. Nevertheless, vane and rachis δ 2 H were strongly correlated, demonstrating that rachis can be also used in isotope analyses because its δ 2 H can be accurately rescaled. This is useful since rachis represents an important fraction of feather mass in songbirds. Values of δ 2 H from ground and non-ground samples from the same feather were also compared. There was no effect of the processing protocol, suggesting that grinding is unnecessary when working with passerine feathers.