Fakes

Horace His de la Salle est passé à la postérité pour son goût du dessin ancien et sa générosité. Mais le collectionneur fut aussi vivement passionné de bronzes antiques et modernes, de monnaies et de médailles. Pour apprécier cet intérêt ne subsistent plus aujourd’hui que les quinze plaquettes offertes au musée du Louvre en 1876, objets de cette étude. ..

La falsificación de piezas arqueológicas ha sido una práctica muy corriente que ha acompañado al desarrollo de la propia Ar-queología desde, prácticamente, su nacimiento. De hecho, las piezas falsificadas han protagonizado notables disputas entre partidarios y detractores de su autenticidad. Sin embargo, no han recibido la necesaria atención: con algunas excepciones, lo habitual ha sido estudiarlas como una colección de casos. En este trabajo procu-ramos enfrentarnos a las falsificaciones arqueológicas teniendo presente que se trata de procesos, de historias que adquieren una forma discursiva. Esto nos ha permitido analizarlas usando criterios narratológicos para identificar el papel jugado por determinados personajes (arqueólogos, falsificadores, connoisseurs) en el relato. En aras de personalizar este tipo de imposturas, nos hemos acercado igualmente a los discursos de otras disciplinas, fundamentalmente el Derecho debido al componente antisocial asociado a la falsificación. Fruto de todo ello, hemos tratado de dibujar los contornos de este interesante campo de investigación. Palabras clave: falsificaciones, arqueología, narrativas. Archaeological forgeries are part of archaeology practically since its inception. Forgeries have been, in fact, the subject of a number of notable controversies pitting supporters against detractors as to their authenticity. They have nonetheless not, with a few exceptions, received sufficient attention and are most commonly examined in the framework of a compilation of cases. This study addresses this subject bearing in mind that forgeries form part of a process, that is, they are stories told in a narrative form. This has led to an approach based on narratological criteria to identify the role played by each of the characters (archaeologists, forgers, connoisseurs). This analysis also resorted to other disciplines, notably the Law, due to the antisocial nature associated with forgery. Based on these different elements this study intends to offer a broad outline of a fascinating subject.

Winner of the 2018 AEJMC/History Division Covert Prize for the best article on mass communication history. From about 1885 to 1910, the concept of the “fake” was an integral part of an ongoing debate in the USA over how best to represent reality for a mass journalistic audience. Nothing like the nefarious fraud its name might suggest, the term generally referred to the modest embellishment, invention, or correction of details in a story or a photograph to make it seem more vivid and truer to life. In both the newspaper press and the world of photography, some practitioners initially embraced the tactic as both useful for the practitioner and beneficial to the public. After the growing condemnation of the fake in the newspaper world helped to cement the increasing dominance of the professionalized journalist, in photography a vigorous debate carried out in the trade and popular press over the propriety and consequences of manipulating images helped to mark the boundaries of the emerging profession of photojournalism. The debate resonates to this day.

Fakes!? is thought provoking and intellectually engaging; it is a valuable contribution to early modern history of science scholarship that opens up important new considerations about the nature, and the production, of scientific knowledge” —Isis,v.106, No.2 (June 2015)

"Índice de Fake" como un acercamiento al tratamiento matemático simple para detectar un posible caso falso, a partir de ciertos parámetros. En el documento se explora el  universo de la falsedad, la mentira, el fake, la estafa, bulos. Conceptualizaciones, mecanismos y psicología inherentes. Agnotología. Cifras del fraude.  Algunas fórmulas matemáticas ensayadas para la ufología.

(Sujeto a revisión o mejora)

Catalogue entry (no. 7.11, p. 250) on a relief fragment at Museum August Kestner in Hannover / Germany (Acq. no. 1927.282), a "masterpiece" of the famous producer of Egyptian forgeries Oxan Aslanian, the so-called "Berliner Meister", for the beautiful publication which appeared in connection with the exhition "Irrtümer & Fälschungen der Archäologie" (Mistakes & Forgeries in Archaeology) at LWL-Museum für Archäologie, Westfälisches Landesmuseum, Herne / Germany (23 March– 9 September 2018) and Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim / Germany (24 November 2018 – 26 May 2019). - The PDF also contains also the entry cat. no. 7.15 (p. 255) by Christian Bayer (Hildesheim) about a scarcely available publication on forgeries by Ludwig Borchardt, a loan to the exhibition from the library of Christian E. Loeben. - (in German)

The Ure Museum of Greek Archaeology (University of Reading) leads a successful educational programme which offers school activities to local Key Stage 2 pupils. Here, children have the opportunity to get familiar with the different shapes, functions and artistic techniques of Greek pottery. In order to get a better understanding of these subjects, they handle museum objects and try to discover what type of liquid they contained, their purpose, decoration, etc. However, among these artefacts, two fakes are usually included: a clay cast of a metallic rhyton (probably forged in the 19th century, in Italy) and a lekythos from the Victorian period.
This paper will focus on the importance of forgeries from a pedagogic point of view, as a didactic resource to highlight basic concepts on ancient Greek pottery, to favour the thorough visual analysis of ancient artefacts and to motivate insightful discussions. Moreover, we will address the relevance of historical forgeries in archaeological collections and their role in a museum, as well as the reinterpretation of Greek Art from present day.

“Quasi tutte le storie, più o meno, celano una menzogna,” ci racconta Orson Welles all’inizio di F for fake(1973). Proprio la crisi del rapporto fiction/realtà e l’esplicita messa in discussione della “referenzialità” dell’arte, nonché l’emergere di scritture che esibiscono, anziché nascondere i propri meccanismi finzionali e compositivi, ostentano il proprio riferimento non alla “vita” ma ad altra letteratura, ad altro cinema, ad altro fumetto. In altre parole, “ciò che vedo è vero, e non solo verosimile, e per questo ci credo”. Proprio il processo di finzionalizzare la realtà ha investito non solo i media, ma anche la letteratura degli ultimi decenni, innescando, da un lato il falsificare, dall’altro invece il narrativizzare, ossia tradurre il documento in racconto. Ciò comporta nel primo caso l’alterazione del dato reale, che perde le sue specificità, mentre nel secondo caso si limita invece alla commutabilità, che si rivolge più che alla natura del fondo, alla forma. Infatti la cifra finzionale e il dato cronachistico vivono e convivono contemporaneamente nel medesimo spazio narrativo. Spesso si definisce la non-fiction in opposizione alla fiction. Questa contaminazione ipermediale genera nuovi processi di ibridazione, dove i generi si perdono per un territorio comune, una sorta di terzo paessaggio in cui crescono. Proprio in questo contesto la transmedialità (“transizione mediale”) eleva a cifra stilistica possibili realtà (mondi possibili), quella virtuale e aumentata. Oggi abbiamo le telecamere, le macchine fotografiche digitali, i sistemi di comunicazione wireless, le animazioni 3D in tempo reale, la condivisione delle nostre esperienze tramite internet e i suoi sistemi, email, chat, MMOD, Facebook, Flickr, Twitter. Il fake si basa sulla questione di cos’è la verità? Chi stabilisce se un artwork è arte o no?  Come si stabilisce se è lui o  non è lui? Come si fa a riconoscere il bello? Quindi il fake non come falso, bensì come un ibrido movimento falso-vero, in cui nell’intermezzo sorge “un nuovo territorio ubiquo”. Proprio in questo “interstizio transmediale” vivono e pulsano incroci mobili e fluttuanti superando perfino le discipline per una transizione tra materiale-immateriale, falso-vero, fiction-non-fiction. Ecco che F for fake può essere riavvolto e “restaurato” per un re-enactment linguistico e performativo. Così vicino, così lontano, il falso diviene modello del vero oltre la non-fiction per una pratica creativa e umana, in cui tutto è differente.

“Almost all stories hide, more or less, a lie,” Orson Welles tells us at the beginning F for Fake (1973). Precisely the crisis of fiction/reality relationship and the explicit questioning of “referentiality” art, as well as the emergence of scriptures that exhibit rather than hide their fictional and compositional mechanisms, flaunt their reference not to the “life” but to other literature, for another film, for another comic strip. In other words, “what I see is true, and not only credible, and that’s why I trust it”. Just the process of “fictionalizing” the reality has involved not only the media, but also the literature of the last decades, triggering, on one the hand the fake, on the other hand the narrativize, that is translate the document into story. This results in the first case the alteration of the real data, that loses its specificity, while in the second case is confined to the switchable, which targets more than to the nature of the bottom, to the form. In fact, the fictional figure and the chronicle data live and coexist simultaneously. in the same narrative space. Often we define the non-fiction as opposed to fiction. This contamination hypermedia generates new processes of hybridization, where the genders are lost for a common territory, a sort of third scenery in which they grow. In this context the transmediality (“medial transition”) rises to stylistic cifras possible realities (worlds), and virtual and augmented. Today we have cameras, digital cameras, wireless communication systems, 3D animations in real time, the possibility to share our experiences through the internet and its systems, email, chat, MMOD, Facebook, Flickr, Twitter. Is fake based on the question of what is truth? Who determines whether an artwork is art or not? How do you determine whether it is he or  is not he? How do you recognize beauty? Fake doesn’t have to be seen as false, but as a hybrid false-true movement, and in the space represented in between rises “a new ubiquitous” territory. Preciselly within this “transmedial gap” floating and mobile crossings live and trill going beyond the disciplines for a transition between the material-immaterial, true-false, fiction-non-fiction. Here F for Fake can be rewound and “restored” for a linguistic and performative re-enactment. So close, so far, the false becomes a model of true beyond non-fiction for a practice creative and human, in which everything is different.

On the basis of a review of the exhibition “Le Faux dans l’Art et dans l’Histoire” (Paris 1955) written by Cesare Brandi, this essays will explore the Italian contribution to this exhibition and examine the relationship between fakes and the “artistic diagnosis”, definite in France and Italy in different ways from the 1930s onwards, with the establishment of the Institut Mainini in the former and of the Istituto Centrale del Restauro (ICR) in the latter. In addition, the article investigates the narrow interdependence of the concepts of authenticity and fake, which both derive from the recognition of the work of art, and were characterized by two permanent exhibitions organized by ICR in the early 1950s, conceived as pendants. Finally, the article focuses, using texts contemporary of these exhibitions, on the different understanding of the relation between authenticity and aesthetic judgment in the thought of Cesare Brandi and that of Étienne Gilson.

Il numero si concentra sull’idea di falso. Tramontata la visione positivistica del documento e l’idea della storia come ricerca del Vero, indagare il falso ha ancora un senso; a patto di chiarirne metodi, fini e confini. Quello che rimane fondamentale è il processo di indagine della soggettività, in senso comunitario e politico, alla base della costruzione di ogni fonte storica. Ogni documento, in quanto monumento, è il risultato di uno sforzo – politico in senso lato – compiuto dalla società di imporre una determinata rappresentazione di sé. Ci siamo chiesti allora come, in pratica, l’uso politico delle fonti abbia messo e metta in gioco la costruzione o la demolizione di un’egemonia, o di una controegemonia, culturale e sociale.

Although in modern culture copies tend to be considered devoid of creativity and thus of value, it was not always the case; in the past, copies and the practice of copying were viewed favorably. It is only as authenticity and originality played an ever more determining role in Western culture, that their valence shifted towards the negative and even damning. Hergé’s Adventures of Tintin and in particular Le Sceptre d’Ottokar, an album contemporary with Walter Benjamin’s essay on mechanical reproduction, illustrate the anxiety that underlies the modern conception of the copy.

Shanghai's Pudong financial district is known for its spectacular skyline, which Michelle Huang has referred to as 'a copy of a global city' – a reading that this article pushes further. What does this 'copy of a global city' tell us about the intricate relationships between globalisation, capitalism and urbanity? Whereas Koolhaas proposed the notion of the 'generic city' to grasp the future Asian city, this article argues that his reading reifies the conservative premise that globalisation equals homogenisation. Although Abbas' concept of the 'fake' comes closer to what we see emerging in Asia, it simultaneously reifies the problematic idea of an authentic original. Instead, the article proposes reading Pudong as a shanzhai version of the global city: meaning the culture of Chinese pirated, 'fake' products. By linking the notion of shanzhai to that of the global city, it aims to recuperate the locality, fluidity and peculiarity of the global city.

Durante mucho tiempo se ha hablado de la gran cantidad de información que generan las redes sociales y como estas están expuestas a rumores o fake news (noticias falsas), para eso el concepto de la post verdad hace un rol preponderante en cuando un grupo o una gran cantidad de personas comienza a virilizar, informar o retwitear información sin fundamento o carente de veracidad. El poder que hoy tienen las redes es entender el poder de las personas y la prensa cuando se alinean con temas puntuales y son capaces de manejar incluso la agenda de naciones o autoridades cuando son emplazadas pública y masivamente. En particular vamos hablar de las redes de microblog como lo son Twitter e Instragram, ya que son las más rápida en su interfaz de usuario y son usados por muchos gestionadores de contenido, medios de prensa y autoridades ya que por medio de cuentas "faro" o cuentas seguidas por una gran cantidad de personas permiten "viralizar" contenido de manera muy rápida y precisa, llegando a una gran cantidad de observadores que día a día están gestionando el "big data" con diferentes objetivos. Para este caso, la propuesta de generar valor agregado por medio del análisis de gran cantidad de datos por medio de data mining, la enfocaremos en la gestión de emergencias y reducción del riesgos de desastres.

La revuelta íntima es la filosofía práctica de un terrorismo poético que se instala en la contradicción, el cuestionamiento, y la conciencia de habitar en un espacio mediado por una cultura que debe ser vista de un modo crítico. Esta re-visión de la cultura es una re-visión de su memoria, por lo que la principal base de la revuelta es su sentido histórico. Sin embargo en este proceso de re-vuelta al pasado, la memoria no es aquí solo un archivo, sino que la rememoración se comporta como una contramemoria, que dibuja un nuevo sentido histórico desplazado. El sentido entonces como significación pero también como dirección, nos apunta a una doble acción de la revuelta, por un lado nos impele a re-volver al pasado y por otro a re- crear el futuro.
La revuelta se sirve de ese espacio difuso que es el tránsito de lo que consideramos ficción a lo que consideramos real. Usualmente es una frontera, que la revuelta ocupa en un ejercicio de poetización de los hechos reales. Este espacio híbrido, que llamaremos ficción-no-ficción, es precisamente el lugar donde se sitúa el Fake. La estrategia del Fake – lo falso que se hace pasar por verdadero- secuestra el efecto de lo real temporalmente y nos abre a la potencialidad de una utopía o una distopía. Nos abre a lo posible durante un breve instante sólo hasta el momento de su desvelamiento, y con él su exterminio. Su triunfo, por lo tanto, es acabar siendo descubierto, ya que el objetivo del montaje del Fake como revuelta no es instaurarse como un nuevo orden, sino abrir ese frágil intervalo que imprime una mirada crítica, consciente de sí misma. Revisando y desmontando nuestros simulacros- verdad, y cuestionándonos los mecanismos propios de la producción de realidad.
En resumen, desde la perspectiva del Fake, la cultura en revuelta es una cultura radical del simulacro y el camuflaje. Desfigura lo que consideramos real y lo que entendemos por Historia, disfrazándose con su propio aspecto, bajo su misma aparente normalidad, formalismo y decencia. Como un caballo de Troya.


EN


The intimate riot, or intimate turn, is the performative philosophy of a poetic terrorism that settles in the contradiction, the questioning and the awareness of living in a culture mediated space that should be examined with attention. This cultural review is also a review of its memory, therefore the main basis of the riot lies on its historic sense. Nevertheless in this re-turning to the past process, the memory not only works as an archive, the remembrance behaves as anti-memory, that depicts a new displaced sense of history. The sense, as meaning, in spanish can also be a direction, that points us a double effect of the riot. On one hand it drives us to re-turn to the past and on the other to re-create the future.
The riot uses the vague space in the transition from the fiction to what we consider real. Usually it is a boundary, that riot occupies in a poetization of the real facts. This hibrid space, that we will name after fiction-non-fiction, is excactly tge place where Fake is. La Fake strategy –the false that pretends to be truth-, kidnaps the real efect for a moment, and opens up a potencial utopia or dystopia. It brings “the possible” for a short moment till its disclosure, and then its extinction. The tryumph of the Fake is to be discovered, because the goal of the Fake as a riot is not to settle a new order, but open a fragile break that can print a critic perspective, aware of itself. Examining and dismantling our simulacrum-truths, and questioning the very “truth production” mecanisms.
Summarizing, from the Fake-turn perspective, the riot culture is a radical simulacra and camouflage culture. Transforms what we consider real and what we understand as History, dressing up with the same apperance, apparent normality, formalism, and decency. As a Troyan horse.

Die vorliegende Datei umfasst Katalogtexte zu vier Objekten, die 2018/2019 in der Abteilung »Tiara des Saitaphernes« der Sonderausstellung »Irrtümer & Fälschungen der Archäologie« in Herne und Hildesheim präsentiert werden. Die zuerst besprochene Schrift von Adolf Furtwängler trug maßgeblich zur Entlarvung der berühmten Fälschung bei, die angeblich aus der Nähe von Olbia Pontike stammen sollte und 1896 vom Musée du Louvre als vermeintliches »Meisterwerk antiker Goldschmiedekunst« angekauft wurde. Die drei übrigen Objekte hatten dem Fälscher, Israel Roukhomovsky, als Vorlagen bei der Herstellung der Tiara gedient. +++ Kat. 8.4: Adolf Furtwängler, Intermezzi. Kunstgeschichtliche Studien; Leihgabe der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Institut für Klassische Archäologie und Christliche Archäologie/Archäologisches Museum (Sign. I Fu 7018). +++ Kat. 8.5: Silberplatte – ›Schild des Scipio‹ (Kopie); Leihgabe des Römisch-Germanischen-Zentralmuseums – Leibniz Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie, Mainz (Inv. 42162). +++ Kat. 8.6: Ludwig Weisser, Bilder-Atlas zur Weltgeschichte nach Kunstwerken alter und neuer Zeit; Leihgabe von Birgitta Hübner, Essen (ohne Sign.). +++ Kat. 8.7: Nikodim Pavlovich – Ivan Ivanovich Tolstoï, Les antiquités de la Russie méridionale; Leihgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Münster (Sign. 4' k+1 365).

Through a synthesis of fledgling theories of post-truth (author, 2006, 2014, 2016, 2017) developing around Donald Trump and Brexit and theories of emotions in populism, I analyze the right-wing French movement La Manif Pour Tous, and their ongoing issue campaign against what they call “gender theory in the schools.” After I identify their populist qualities, I analyze five prominent post-truth qualities in the movement: 1) organization and public presentation; 2) “active distrust” qualities; 3) emotional/affective qualities; 4) “rumor bombs” about gender theory; and 5) conjunctural specificity within gender, sexuality and other backlashes. Considering the conjunctural convergence of social trust and truth deficits, I propose that the post-truth and “rumor-bombing” aspects simultaneous with their populist nature are better understood as a kind of emotional or “emo-truth” common to both performance of authenticity in Reality TV shows and right-wing populist movements today. Finally, I propose cases like this point to a mainstreaming of post-truth populism, across Western liberal democracies and beyond.

Αφορμή της μελέτης υπήρξε ένα ζεύγος χρυσών ελασμάτων της Συλλογής Ελένης και Αντωνίου Σταθάτου (Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο), που κοσμείται με μοναδική -αμάρτυρη απο αλλού- εικονογραφημένη παράσταση. Δημοσιεύτηκε το 1953 από τον Pierre Amandry. Σταδιακά συμπεριλήφθηκε σε έργα αναφοράς, όπως το Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC) και το Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum (ThesCRA), ενώ εντάχθηκε στην ειδικότερη βιβλιογραφία ελευσινιακής λατρείας και εικονογραφίας. Τα ελάσματα, δεν είχαν επανεξεταστεί από κανέναν ερευνητή μετά την πρώτη δημοσίευση.
Με την έναρξη της κριτικής μελετητικής μου εμπλοκής το 2008, τέθηκε εξαρχής η αναγκαιότητα πληρέστερης ανάλυσης και κατανόησης των λεπτομερειών της παράστασης. Η νευραλγικότητα της παρεχόμενης πληροφορίας, σε συνδυασμό με την έλλειψη ασφαλών δεδομένων για το αντικείμενο, οδήγησε σταδιακά στην ευρύτερη συνεξέταση όσων άλλων  τεκμηρίων μπορούσαν να ελεγχθούν. Ο συμβατικός τίτλος της συλλογής («Θησαυρός της Δημητριάδας») λειτούργησε ως έναυσμα για μια ευρύτερη συνεξέταση της ιστορίας των ανασκαφών και ερευνών της αρχαίας Δημητριάδας, όπως και των θεσσαλικών «θησαυρών» γενικότερα.
Η μελέτη αποτέλεσε αφορμή διερεύνησης της ιστορίας της ελληνικής -και δη θεσσαλικής- αρχαιολογίας κατά τη μετάβαση από τον 19ο προς τον 20ό αιώνα. Η ιστορία σύστασης της περιώνυμης συλλογής εξελίσσεται παράλληλα με τη σταδιακή εδραίωση της θεσσαλικής Αρχαιολογίας. Στην υπόθεση ανιχνεύτηκε ένα από τα καίρια κλειδιά ενός ελάχιστα ερευνημένου φαινομένου, που εδραιώθηκε με την ανάπτυξη της αρχαιολογικής επιστήμης και εξακολουθεί να την επηρεάζει έως σήμερα: της πλαστογραφίας Αρχαιοτήτων.

This article unearths a seventeenth-century manuscript on numismatics from the collections of the Getty Research Institute. This unique copy of Discorso delle medaglie antiche (Discourse on ancient medals), by an unidentified author and of which other nonidentical versions exist, is transcribed and studied here for the first time. Divided into nineteen chapters, the manuscript discusses the main precepts for collecting ancient coins and, above all, explains in detail how to recognize fakes produced by unscrupulous antiquarians. The final part of the manuscript instructs the collector on conserving, cleaning, and cataloging the coins. Various clues in the text suggest that the manuscript was written in a Roman context in the first half of the seventeenth century and lead to the hypothesis that the author is numismatist Francesco Gottifredi: prime expert in recognizing fakes, collector of rare Roman coins, and consultant to the most important collectors of his time.

Die Sonderausstellung »Irrtümer & Fälschungen der Archäologie«, die 2018/2019 im LWL-Museum für Archäologie – Westfälisches Landesmuseum in Herne und im Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim zu sehen war, korrigierte populäre, aber überholte Thesen über vergangene Epochen und ihre Artefakte und deckte mit mehr als 200 Exponaten spektakuläre Betrugsfälle auf. Dass Irrtümer und Fälschungen auch in Zukunft noch möglich sind, machte eine humoristische Inszenierung auf Grundlage des „Motels der Mysterien“ deutlich: Der preisgekrönte US-amerikanischen Künstler David Macaulay beschriebt in seiner Grafik-Novelle die Ausgrabung einer Motelanlage der Jetzt-Zeit im Jahr 4022 n.Chr., bei der dem Archäologen Howard Carson allerlei komische Fehldeutungen unterlaufen. +++ Summary: The special exhibition »Errors and forgeries in archaeology« run by the LWL Museum of Archaeology in Herne corrects popular but outdated theories about past eras. More than 200 exhibits uncover lapses of judgement and cases of fraud from all over Europe. The fact that errors and forgeries will still occur in future is highlighted by the humorous adaptation of the award-winning American author and graphic designer David Macauly called »Motel of the Mysteries«, a modern-day motel which is being excavated in AD 4022 by archaeologist Howard Carson, who makes a variety of misinterpretations. +++ Samenvatting: De speciale tentoonstelling »Irrtümer & Fälschungen der Archäologie« in het LWL-Museum fur Archäologie in Herne corrigeert populaire, maar achterhaalde vooronderstellingen uit het verleden. Meer dan 200 tentoonstellingsstukken geven een beeld van misvattingen en bedrog in heel Europa. Dat vergissingen en vervalsingen ook in de toekomst mogelijk zijn, toont de humoristische enscenering van de bekroonde Amerikaanse schrijver en illustrator David Macaulay: het »Motel der Mysterien«, de opgraving van een motel uit de huidige tijd in 4022 na Chr., waarbij de opgraver Howard Carson allerlei foute interpretaties overkomen.

Permalink:
https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/aiw/article/view/69085/62402

El metamedio digital es el actual espacio de interacción social por excelencia. Una memoria protésica idónea para la creación de heterogéneas ficciones, las cuales resultan de estéticas postproductivas de una e-image que establece un nuevo régimen escópico. Se analizará, pues, cómo este entorno presenta un campo fértil a la réplica de fenómenos tales como fakes, que también pueden proliferar como unidades mínimas de transmisión cultural (memes). Ello establece una memecracia desde la que activar prácticas artísticas subversivas.

Nato dall’eredità della comune lotta nelle file del Partito d’Azione e sotto l’egida dell’esempio di Benedetto Croce, il sodalizio tra Carlo Ludovico Ragghianti e Neri Pozza restituisce un punto di vista privilegiato per comprendere la situazione culturale italiana tra gli anni Cinquanta e Sessanta del secolo scorso. Il loro intenso rapporto risulta essere basato sul tentativo di offrire una proposta culturale di altissimo valore morale e culturale, che si distinguesse dalle scelte dei maggiori editori italiani del tempo. La ricerca si è perciò concentrata sulla ricostruzione di un legame caratterizzato dall’ambizioso obiettivo di dare attivamente seguito agli ideali incarnati dalla lotta antifascista e dagli anni spesi nella Resistenza. Nascono in questo contesto iniziative di notevole spessore come la collana della Biblioteca di Cultura e «Criterio», una rivista di primo piano nel dibattito politico della seconda metà degli anni Cinquanta. Allo stesso tempo dalle pagine di questo studio traspare la convinzione che la storia dell’arte sia impegno civile e disciplina complessa. Il ricco carteggio dimostra pertanto la passione e lo spirito d’iniziativa alla base del loro rapporto attraverso la genesi e il compimento di iniziative quali la Raccolta pisana di saggi e studi, la pubblicazione di alcune annate di «Critica d’arte» e di libri ancora oggi riferimento imprescindibile per gli studi come Falsi e falsari di Otto Kurz.

Archaeological plaster casts have had a turbulent history and the Ashmolean Museum's collection was fortunate to survive. New research conducted by PhD students Abbey Ellis and Chiara Marabelli hopes to consider their value as objects in their own right.

Iran is very rich in metal ores and has had an unbroken tradition of metalworking for at least 7000 years. At the end of the second millennium bc a number of regional cultures emerged within Iran, particularly in the north western and western parts of the country and these were particularly proficient in metalworking. Apart from a small number of stray accidental finds, the first occasion on which a significant number of such pieces entered Western collections-including the British Museum-was during the late 1920s. Almost all of these were acquired via the art market and lacked secure excavated provenances. This paper looks at two types of sword that have been scientifically examined with X-radiography, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence analysis. The results indicate that some swords with bronze hilts were certainly cast-on to bronze blades, but although some excavated examples show the casting of bronze hilts onto iron blades, many others circulating on the art market show unmistakable signs of having the corroded iron blades replaced by bronze blades from separate weapons of the same typological class. The results call into question some previous assumptions in the literature about swords of these types and underline the importance of using scientific techniques when analysing pieces purchased from the art market.

Sumario I. El disenso en democracia vs. la proliferación de determinados mensajes no amparables en el ordenamiento. II. El fácil influjo de determinados mensajes falsos en la opinión pública en la era de internet. III. La complicada determi-nación de lo que es verdad y lo que es mentira. IV. La compleja disociación entre hechos y opiniones. La veracidad sobre los hechos y los límites a las opi-niones. V. ¿Caben los mensajes que, faltando a la verdad, violentan los valores y principios básicos de nuestro ordenamiento? VI. De la ideología personal a la falsedad deliberada o la intención de mentir. VII. Controles en la red de los mensajes falsos. VIII. A modo de conclusión: «Fiat veritas ne pereat mundus». I. EL DISENSO EN DEMOCRACIA VS. LA PROLIFERACIÓN DE DETERMINADOS MENSAJES NO AMPARABLES EN EL ORDENAMIENTO En un Estado que se considera democrático, cualquier afirmación o cualquier información tiene que poder ser discutida. Lo cual significa, por un lado, que no cabe establecer una verdad única ni conformar una opinión pública de tal modo que de facto se imponga aquella de forma general, y, por otro lado, que es necesa-rio garantizar la capacidad libre e informada de disentir sobre cualquier asunto, 1 Este trabajo se inserta en el marco del Proyecto de Investigación Seguridad Pública, Seguridad Privada y Derechos Fundamentales, RTI2018-098405-B-100, del Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades.