Historical Dialectology

Афонские монастыри с X в. были крупнейшими землевладельцами. В XVII–XVIII вв. они получили в дар огромные поместья в Молдавии и Валахии, доходы с которых позволили монастырям приобретать новые угодья в Македонии и на островах Эгейского моря. В монастырских архивах сохранилось множество договоров о купле-продаже земельных участков. В большинстве актов (как принято называть такие документы) указаны дата заключения договора и место расположения покупаемого участка. Как показывает пилотное исследование, проведенное на материале случайно отобранных шести документов (датируются от 1668 до 1727 гг.), в афонских актах встречаются интересные языковые особенности, которые могут быть важны и для исторической грамматики новогреческого языка, и для исторической диалектологии.

Monasteries from Mount Athos became rich landowners in the 10th century. About 700–800 years later rich lands were donated to them in Moldavia and Walachia. Because of the new income, it became possible for them to buy new terrains in Macedonia and islands in Aegean. Monastic archives still have many land sale agreements (so called “Acts”) in which the exact date of deal and location of the terrain is recorded. This paper presents some results of a preliminary study of six randomly chosen documents (dating from 1668 to 1727) and describes some linguistic features that are interesting and important for both historical grammar of Modern Greek and Greek historical dialectology.

The principal aim of this essay is to analyse ditransitive auxiliary verbs in indicative and non-indicative periphrasis in High-Navarrese dialect, in texts written before 1750. Therefore, *eradun, *nin and *erazan auxiliary verbs are observed systematically in order to make a new proposal about their chronology and extension.

Key words: High-Navarrese, ditransitive verbs, *eradun, *nin, *erazan, dialectalization

Saio honek goi-nafarrerazko NOR-NORI-NORK saileko perifrasietako aditz laguntzaileez dihardu, eta horretarako 1750. urtea baino lehenagoko goi-nafarrerazko lekukotasunetan sistematikoki begiratu dira sail horretako aditz laguntzaileak. Hori dela eta, *eradun, *nin eta *erazan laguntzaileen agerraldiak aztertu eta beren kronologiaz eta hedaduraz proposamen berria egiten da.

Hitz gakoak: goi-nafarrera, Nor-Nori-Nork saileko aditz laguntzaileak, *eradun, *nin, *erazan, dialektalizazioa.

ABSTRACT: This article will explore the various conceptions underlying the use of the expression ticai-c-col (approximately “regional words”). After describing the role assigned to these by Tamil grammarians and Tamil grammatical commentators, we shall present a sketch of traditional Tamil linguistic geography, with its central and peripheral regions, and the way it has been reinterpreted in the course of history. We will also try to examine the actual linguistic data, the differences of opinion about it, and what they tell us about Tamil literature and the movement hiding below its classical surface.

Публикуемый полный библиографический указатель посвя-
щен истории исследования псковской народной речи и памятников древнепсковской письменности и охватывает период со времени первых публикаций, вышедших в XIX веке, до настоящего времени.

В корпусе указателя в хронологической последовательности
отражаются сведения о более чем 2100 работах, изданных в России и за рубежом. К их числу относятся монографии, словари, статьи, тезисы докладов, авторефераты диссертаций, предметом которых являются актуальные вопросы сбора, хранения и изучения псковской народной речи, а также проблемы издания и описания письменных памятников Пскова.

Указатель адресован специалистам по языкознанию, учителям, студентам-филологам, краеведам – всем, кто интересуется
историей и современным состоянием народной речи Псковщины
– уникального по своим геополитическим, историко-культурным
и языковым признакам края.

Chapter 6 (by Santazilia) is a study of the Basque noun morphology, which sets out the noun paradigm of historical Basque and the structure of its NP, and then goes on to list the explanations proposed so far for every aspect concerning the formation of that paradigm: first the number/definiteness axis, and then the individual cases, classifying these into primary cases (grammatical and local), secondary cases (those built upon the allative and the genitive), and pseudo-flectional morphemes or non-cases.

ENGLISH
The object of this research work is to examine the living Basque dialect of Orozko. Now
located at the southern end of Biscay province, this village lived on its own from Middle
Ages until the 18th century, mainly linked to the land of Ayala. Even though this local
contemporary Basque language belongs to the Biscayan variety, it may have preserved
traces of Old Western Basque and some hints of the extinct western Alavan dialect.
With this objective in mind, here we present and analyze the data obtained from the
transcribed speech recorded in the Orozko neighbourhoods of Urigoiti and Zaloa. In the
introduction we will describe the village in detail, its history, its layout and geography,
in order to better understand the context. In addition, all the local dialects from
neighbouring villages have been taken into account (especially Zeberio and those of the
southern Nervion Valley, Arakaldo and Arrankundiaga, and also Zeanuri and Igorre in
Arratia) so as to be able to synchronically classify all the linguistic features in the
southwestern area of Biscay. Lost Alavan varieties (19th century christian doctrines and
translations in Laudio dialect, recordings from 1970s Baranbio speakers, tales from
Zigoitia written down by Barandiaran...) have had paramount importance, besides
today's Legutio dialect; those have been this work's compass regarding many aspects,
aiding in the discovery of features disappeared elsewhere.
Ancient texts from the surroundings (most specifically Viva Jesus doctrine, Dotrinazko
Sermoitegia collection of doctrines and Zaloako Erreguak prayers) have been carefully
perused in order to show the historical development of this dialect and come by some
phonetic-phonological and morphological hypotheses. Northwards, some old sources
from the Nervion Valley and the Greater Bilbao (Refranes y Sentencias, Rafael
Mikoleta's handbook, Bertso Bizkaitarrak...) have proved valuable to narrow down our
southwestern linguistical area. Similarly, older Alavan documents further south (Landucci's dictionary, Joanes Lazarraga's manuscript, Juan Bautista Gamiz'es poems...)
have been helpful when it came to characterizing Biscayan and Alavan varieties.
Finally, a summarized overview of Orozkoan Basque is provided, determining the
classification and position of its features among other varieties, showing focal areas and
clarifying southwestern Basque's system by saying what it is like nowadays and what it
may evolve into in the future. In this last chapter we have attempted to explain its
development in the last two centuries and its transformation from one generation to
another, chiefly how much it has changed among speakers that live under the influence
of modern standard Basque.

EUSKARA
Orozkoko hizkera bizia aztertzea du helburu lan honek. Bizkaiko hegoaldeko mutur
batean kokatuta, Orozko aparteko eremu bat izan da Erdi Arotik XVIII. mendera arte,
gehienbat Aiaraldeari luzaro lotuta. Bertako euskara bizkaiera izanda ere,
Mendebaldeko euskararen aztarna zaharrak gorde ahal izan ditu, eta Arabako sartaldeko
euskara iraungiaren isla izan daiteke.
Xede honekin, Orozkoko bi auzotan, Urigoitin eta Zaloan, beren beregiko grabaketak
eginda, transkripzioetatik ateratako datuak era ordenatuan analizatu eta aurkezten dira.
Ikerlan honen sarreran bizirik dagoen herri baten nondik norakoak erakusten dira, bere
historia, antolamendua eta geografia, testuingurua hobeto ulertzeko. Era berean, lan
osoan zehar alboko herrietako hizkerak hartu dira kontuan (batez ere Zeberio eta
Nerbioi Ibarreko hegoaldekoak, Arakaldo eta Arrankudiaga, eta bestetik, Arratiako
Zeanuri eta Igorre) hizkuntz ezaugarriak hego-mendebaldeko eremuan sinkronikoki
kokatzeko. Berebiziko garrantzia izan dute Araba parteko hizkera galduek (Laudioko
XIX. mendeko dotrinak eta itzulpenak, Baranbioko 1970eko hamarkadako
elkarrizketak, Barandiaranek Zigoitian jasotako ipuinak...), egungo Legutioko euskara
ahaztu gabe; horiexek izan dira lanaren iparrorratza hainbat alderditan, beste nonbaiten
desagertuz joan diren ezaugarriez ohartzeko.
Euskara honen garapen historikoa erakusteko asmoz, inguruko testu zaharrak (bereziki
Viva Jesus dotrina, Dotrinazko Sermoitegia eta Zaloako Erreguak) arakatu eta ageri
diren bereizgarriak erkatuz hainbat kontu fonetiko-fonologikori eta morfologikori
buruzko hipotesiak plazaratzen ditu lan honek. Iparraldera begira, Nerbioi Ibarreko eta
Bilboaldeko zenbait iturri zahar ere baliagarriak izan dira (Refranes y Sentencias,
Rafael Mikoletaren ikasbidea, Bertso Bizkaitarrak...) gure hego-sartaldeko eremuaren
izaera zehazte aldera. Halaber, hegoalderago zeuden iturri arabar zaharrak (Landucciren
hiztegia, Joanes Lazarragaren eskuizkribua, Juan Bautista Gamizen olerkiak...)
lagungarriak izan dira Bizkaiko eta Arabako euskarak bereizteko orduan.
Azkenik, Orozkoko hizkeraren gaineko ikuspegi osoa laburbiltzen da, ezaugarrien
sailkapena eta beste hizkeren arteko kokapena zehaztuz, eremu fokalak erakutsiz eta hego-mendebaldeko euskararen markoa argituz, gaur egun zertan den esanez, eta
norantz lerra daitekeen etorkizunean. Azken atal honetan iragan bi mendeetako
bilakabidea eta belaunaldiz belaunadiko eraldaketa azaldu nahi izan dira, batik bat
euskara batuaren eraginpean bizi diren lagunen hizkera zenbateraino aldatu den.

CASTELLANO
El objeto de este trabajo de investigación es examinar el habla vasca de Orozko. Situado
en un extremo meridional de Bizkaia, Orozko ha sido un territorio aparte desde la Edad
Media hasta el siglo XVIII, principalmente vinculado a las tierras de Ayala. Aunque el
euskara local es vizcaíno, puede haber guardado trazas del antiguo euskara del Oeste y
puede ser reflejo del extinto dialecto alavés occidental.
Con este propósito, aquí se presentan y analizan de forma ordenada los datos obtenidos
en las transcripciones de grabaciones realizadas en dos barrios de Orozko, Urigoiti y
Zaloa. En la introducción de este trabajo se describe el pueblo en detalle, su historia, su
organización y geografía, para así poder entender mejor el contexto. Asimismo, a lo
largo de todo el trabajo se han tenido en cuenta las hablas de los pueblos vecinos (sobre
todo Zeberio y los del Valle del Nervión meridional, Arakaldo y Arrankudiaga, y
además Zeanuri e Igorre en Arratia) para de este modo poder situar sincrónicamente las
características linguísticas en el dominio suroccidental. Las hablas alavesas perdidas
(doctrinas y traducciones decimonónicas en el euskara de Llodio, las entrevistas de los
1970 a hablantes en Baranbio, los cuentos de Zigoitia publicados por Barandiaran...)
han sido de gran importancia, sin olvidar el euskara actual de Legutio; estas han sido la
brújula de trabajo en múltiples aspectos, dando cuenta de rasgos que han ido
desapareciendo en otros lugares.
Con la intención de mostrar el desarrollo histórico de este euskara, se ha indagado en textos antiguos de la zona (especialmente la doctrina Viva Jesus, la colección
Dotrinazko Sermoitegia y los rezos de Zaloako Erreguak) y mediante la comparación de
características distintivas se ha podido llegar a hipótesis sobre ciertos aspectos fonéticofonológicos
y morfológicos. Hacia el norte, también han sido valiosas varias fuentes
antiguas del Valle del Nervión y del Gran Bilbao (Refranes y Sentencias, el manual de
Rafael Mikoleta, Bertso Bizkaitarrak...) en la labor de acotar la identidad del entorno
suroccidental. Igualmente, fuentes alavesas más hacia el sur (el diccionario de Landucci,
el manuscrito de Joanes Lazarraga, los poemas de Juan Bautista Gamiz) han resultado
útiles a la hora de diferenciar los euskaras de Bizkaia y Álava.
Finalmente, se ofrece en resumen una perspectiva completa sobre el habla de Orozko,
concretando la clasificación y posición de sus características entre otras hablas,
mostrando las áreas de difusión y aclarando el marco del euskara suroccidental,
describiéndolo actualmente y hacia dónde puede tender en el futuro. En este último
apartado se ha querido explicar su variación en los dos últimos siglos y su
transformación de una generación a otra, especialmente cuánto ha cambiado entre los
hablantes que viven bajo la influencia del euskara unificado.

"Abstract:

This is an investigation about linguistic diversity, examining its decline in different societal conditions over the last century, and interrogating claims in language policy and planning to be ‘protecting linguistic diversity’, using the UK as its main example.

Chapter 1 comprises a review of variationist sociolinguistics, showing how it has never fully defined linguistic diversity. Adjustments are suggested, and a working definition of linguistic diversity offered.

Chapter 2 presents data from two major nationwide dialect surveys, in 1889 and 1962, showing how local dialects were weakening in this period. The main focus is declining diversity, but information is presented about possible conditioning factors, primarily increases in literacy.

In the absence of such nationwide reports after 1962, Chapter 3 collates individual dialect studies from two regions of England, the northeast and southeast, describing dialect convergence across these large geographical areas. These changes are contrasted to those reported in Chapter 2. Again the main theme is declining diversity, but information is reviewed to help explain these contrasts, primarily increases in geographical mobility in the latter half of the 20th century, concentrated around these regions.

Chapter 4 examines dialect weakening that some researchers have attributed, at least in part, to the media. This also represents a change in societal conditions undergirding declining diversity. Some theoretical work is done to distinguish such changes from those observed in Chapter 3.

Chapter 5 reviews the rhetoric of minority language policy and planning, and its frequent and explicit claims to be ‘protecting linguistic diversity’. The insights developed in Chapters 1-4 are applied to two modern UK language revivals, Cornish and Welsh, to see how diversity overall is faring here.

The conclusion sums up the gaps in our thinking about linguistic diversity, and clarifies the limitations of planned interventions upon language."

The paper discusses the accent of kako ‘how’, tako ‘thus’, ovako ‘this way’, onako ‘that way’ and some other related words (like nikako ‘no way’, nekako ‘somehow’) primarily in Štokavian and Čakavian from a dialectological (including standard-dialect sources) and historical perspective (going back to Common Slavic). The alternation kȁko ‘how’ — kàko ̮ je < kakȍ ̮ je ‘how is’ is discussed in some detail.

Четвертый выпуск словаря (вып. 1-3 вышли в 1994-1996 гг.) содержит лексические и этнографические материалы, отражающие многовековые контакты между карелами, весами, саамами,  словенами, кривичками  и другими народами, населявшими Белогорье, Обонежье, Приладожье, берега река Онега, Северная Двина, Свирь, Волхов, ивключает слова НЕОБРЯТНЫЙ-ПОДУЗОРНИК. Многие слова из карельского и венского языков сохранялись в русских говорах этих мест, но утрачены языками-источниками; особенно богато представлена глагольная лексика северорусских говоров. Словарь выделяется обилием древних прибалтийское-финских заимствований, этнографизмов, собственно местных диалектных образований, а также глаголами и отглагольными наречиями, которые ярко показывают основные тенденции развития живой русской речи.

Для филологов, историков, краеведов, этнографов, учителей и всех интересующихся историей и культурой русского и сопредельных с ним народов.

ON THE STUDY OF GERMAN LOANWORDS IN EAST SLAVIC DIALECTS IN TRANSCARPATHIA

German borrowings as a result of German-East Slavic language contacts can be observed primarily in the South Western Ukrainian dialects. There is a historical reason for this, as Western Ukraine was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire for a long time. In our paper, German loanwords are studied a) on the material of the East Slavic dialects of Transcarpathia, which so far have been only optionally involved in the study of contacts German in the Carpathian area, and b) on recordings of oral speech rather than dictionaries, as in most previous studies. Our paper offers a primary classification of the more frequent lexical borrowings in the Boyko-Dialect and examines transgenerational dynamics in their usage.

The paper aims at offering a sketch of the history and a description, as complete as possible, of the dialect of old Athens on the basis of known, as well as hitherto unknown, sources, including the only surviving Athenian dialectal texts from the 19 th century. The dialect belonged to a group that comprised the varieties of the nearby city of Megara and the Saronic Gulf island of Aegina, as well as of the southern part of the island of Euboea, and is generally regarded as one of the most poorly recorded Modern Greek varieties. The city of Athens became the capital of the modern Greek state after the Greek War of Independence in 1834 and consequently witnessed an immense influx of Greek speakers from all over the Greek speaking world, a process that heavily contributed to the dialect's recession and final extinction by the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.

This dissertation develops a new framework for reconstructing the diversity of a language at a given historical time period. It applies this framework to the problem of reconstructing the diversity of Arabic dialects immediately prior to the Islamic conquests, which spread speakers of these dialects across much of North Africa and the Middle East. The study first establishes a theoretical framework for reconstructing historical speech communities, defined as groups of speakers linked by shared allegiance. It then analyzes the tribal and non-tribal social organization in Pre-Islamic Arabia, and provides a detailed historical overview of how the Islamic conquests contributed to the Arabization of the conquered territories. Finally, the dissertation reconstructs the linguistic history of the Arabic demonstratives, using them as a variable to determine which speech communities existed in pre-Islamic Arabic, where they were located in time and space, and how the diversity of those communities is related to the diversity of modern Arabic dialects.

Language is a crucial component of categorizing and contextualizing manuscripts. At times, curators and cataloguers have noted the "incorrect" orthographies of manuscript texts, positioning them in relation to orthographic standards that might be anachronistic or constructed post-factum. In the current paper, I argue that such categorization creates an erroneous impression of the dominance of standardization. In doing so, I posit that the term "erroneous" might mask diachronic orthographic change; dialect variation; and the influence of performance on written texts. I support my arguments using examples from the British Library's collection of Oghuz Turkic manuscripts from Rumelia, Anatolia and the Caucasus.

This paper demonstrates how the tools of dialect geography may fruitfully lend a new perspective to historical data in order to address the lingering questions left by previous analyses. A geographic examination of Survey of English Dialects data provides evidence in favor of a push-chain analysis of the Great Vowel Shift, in which the Middle English high-mid long vowels raised before the high long vowels were diphthongized. It is also demonstrated that the so-called “irregular” dialect outcomes, which have previously been cited as evidence for a lack of unity of the Great Vowel Shift, are no longer problematic when viewed in the light of a theory of dialect contact, and can in fact refine our understanding of the chronology and geographic extent of the shift itself.

Contrary to widespread belief, there is no reason to think that language diversification typically follows a tree-like pattern, consisting of a nested series of neat splits. Except for the odd case of language isolation or swift migration and dispersal, the normal situation is for language change to involve multiple events of diffusion across mutually intelligible idiolects in a network, typically distributed into conflicting isoglosses. Insofar as these events of language-internal diffusion are later reflected in descendant languages, the sort of language family they define – a “linkage” (Ross 1988) – is one in which genealogical relations cannot be represented by a tree, but only by a diagram in which subgroups intersect.
Non-cladistic models are needed to represent language genealogy, in ways that take into account the common case of linkages and intersecting subgroups. This paper will focus on an approach that combines the precision of the Comparative Method with the realism of the Wave Model. This method, labeled Historical Glottometry, identifies genealogical subgroups in a linkage situation, and assesses their relative strengths based on the distribution of innovations among modern languages. Provided it is applied with the rigour inherent to the Comparative Method, Historical Glottometry should help unravel the genealogical structures of the world’s language families, by acknowledging the role played by linguistic convergence and diffusion in the historical processes of language diversification.

This article discusses the pronunciation of the rhotic phoneme /r/ in early English. The traditional belief that the dominant pronunciation in Old and Middle English was [r] (an apical trill) is still supported by some authors, but there is growing consensus that there was a fairly wide range of /r/ realisations already in early Germanic, and that the pronunciation of /r/ in Old English was about as variable as it is in present-day English. The article defends this view and goes a step further, suggesting that the modern distribution of variant rhotic pronunciations in British English reflects to some extent the distribution of very similar sounds in Old English.

http://hdl.handle.net/10593/2383

Some twenty years ago, Paul Geraghty offered a large-scale survey of the retention and loss of Proto-Oceanic *R across Eastern Oceanic languages, and concluded that *R was “lost in proportion to distance from Western Oceanic.” This paper aims at testing Geraghty’s hypothesis based on a larger body of data now available, with a primary focus on a tightly knit set of languages spoken in Vanuatu. By observing the dialectology of individual lexical items in this region, I show that the boundaries between languages retaining vs. losing *R differ for each word, yet they all define a consistent north-to-south cline whereby *R is lost in the south. This cline, which confirms Geraghty’s observations, can be recognized all the way to southern Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Such a neat geographic distribution observed today can be interpreted in historical terms. I propose that the tendency to lose *R emerged somewhere south of Efate, at an early date in the settlement of the archipelago. This sound change triggered a range of individual lexical innovations, each of which spread across what was then a vast social and linguistic network, encompassing the whole of Vanuatu and New Caledonia. The geography of *R reflexes constitutes a fossilized picture of prehistoric social networks, as the once unitary world of Lapita settlers was beginning to break down into increasingly diversified dialects—the ancestors of modern languages.

The book discusses the grammar(s) of selected Civil War soldiers hailing from three counties in Northwestern South Carolina. It is in two parts, of which the first constitutes the theoretical background; the second presents the results of an analysis of the compiled corpus. Both parts comprise three chapters and are linked by Chapter Four. Chapter One places Northwestern South Carolina within the linguistic landscape of the American South. Chapter Two describes the body of existing
studies on nineteenth-century Englishes of the South and touches upon the debate on the beginning of Southern American English. Chapter Three deals with Civil War vernacular correspondence
and its validity for linguistic scrutiny. Chapter Four functions as a transition between the theoretical and analytical parts, and considers corpus structure, methodological issues, and a selection of
features subject to linguistic scrutiny. Chapter Five elaborates on two grammatical phenomena: present tense agreement between subject and verb and variation in the past tense be paradigm. This
discussion is followed by Chapter Six, where variation among principal parts of irregular verbs and consonant-cluster reduction attested among past tense forms of regular verbs are presented.
Chapter Seven, the last chapter, analyses variation from idiolectal and community grammar perspectives.

Diacrítica 28.1 - Série Ciências da LInguagem (p. 51-72)

This work studies the variation of the falling diphthongs ou and oi in mainlan Portugal.
It is based upon a hypothesis launched by Luís Filipe Lindley Cintra: the
diphthong oi is more predominant in areas under the threat of monothongation.
The data used come from three linguistic atlases: Linguistic Atlas of the Iberian
Peninsula; Atlas of the European Languages; and the Linguistic and Ethnographic
Atlas of Portugal and Galicia. I created a corpus of 26 words with diphthongs [ow]
and [oj] responses obtained in phonetic format from 503 informants in 228 interview
points in the 18 portuguese districts. I present the geographical distributions
of [ow], [oj] and [o], the delimitation of areas of predominance of [oj] and show
there is a correlation between [oj] and [o].
Keywords: diphthongs ou and oi; variation; monothongation

Dans le domaine francoprovençal il n’y a pas une graphie unitaire. Plusieurs transcriptions ont été proposées à base phonétique, et le principe d’une orthographe grammaticale et étymologique n’est généralement pas soutenu.
Une proposition d’orthographe qui prend en compte le domaine francoprovençal dans son ensemble, la France, la Suisse et l’Italie est établie par Dominique Stich (1998 ; 1999 ; 2001 ; 2003). Il s’agit d’une graphie, morphologique et archaïsante, qui s’inspire du système français et occitan. Nous allons présenter cette graphie supra-dialectale qui s’appelle aujourd’hui O.R.B. abréviation de : Orthographe de référence B.
Dans cet article nous voulons préciser les rapports entre les différentes graphies francoprovençales en usage aujourd’hui et indiquer les raisons qui peuvent motiver l’usage d’une graphie supra-dialectale dont la base est un système graphique unitaire.
Nous verrons des échantillons transcrits en O.R.B. à partir de textes lyonnais du 18e siècle.
En étudiant les rapports entre graphie supra-dialectale et phonologie dans le cadre de ce type de textes lyonnais, nous serons en mesure de proposer des choix phonologiquement englobants par rapport à des micro-variations écrites très localisées. Nous allons tout particulièrement nous concentrer sur la transcription orthographique et sur le diasystème phonologique des consonnes palatales, très complexes d’un point de vue phonologique en francoprovençal.

The term ‘dialect levelling’ describes one phonological outcome of the mixing of local dialects. This usually refers to individual speech communities in which previously disparate groups of people have come into prolonged contact. The term ‘regional dialect levelling’ has subsequently been coined to describe such outcomes happening on a much larger scale; as the name suggests, across whole regions. However, despite claims that regional levelling is a recent phenomenon—and hints toward heightened population mobility as a cause—there has been little discussion about the kinds of socioeconomic and geographical changes that may have underlain its emergence. Compounding these difficulties is a tendency in social dialectology to compare dialects as discrete, isolated entities, which can constrain conceptualisation of broad regional changes and their causes. This paper offers a historical account of when regional levelling began, and points to areas of human geography that could help explain who is involved in the process, and why.

I den här uppsatsen presenteras en undersökning om monoftongeringen av de fornnordiska diftongerna æi, ǫu och øy. Syftet är att ta reda på hur och varför dessa primära, fallande diftonger monoftongerades i Sverige och Danmark.

Studien begränsar sig till monoftongeringar som lett till en lång monoftong. För att förstå denna typ av monoftongering utarbetas en teori, vilken förklarar dess orsakssamband. Processen monoftongering till lång monoftong indelas i två huvudtyper. Den ena är evolutiv monoftongering, där den betonade komponenten i diftongen assimilerar den obetonade, t.ex. ei > ē. Den andra är adaptiv monoftongering, där en monoftong ersätter en diftong av rent språkexterna skäl, t.ex. ai > ē.

Materialet utgörs huvudsakligen av tidigare forskning av olika slag, t.ex. äldre ljudhistoriska dialektbeskrivningar. Genom materialet visas hur diftongerna har utvecklats i Sverige och Danmark: såväl vilka uttal de fått i dialekterna, som vilka ljud de har fallit samman med och inte. För att ta reda på om monoftongeringen i Sverige och Danmark har kontinentalt eller västligt ursprung undersöks även utvecklingen av urgermanskt ai och au i de olika germanska fornspråken samt i Norge och på västerhavsöarna.

Med hjälp av materialet och orsakssambandet att den betonade komponenten ger monoftongens uttal vid evolutiv monoftongering, fastslås att det finns flera monoftongeringsområden i Danmark och Sverige som går tillbaka på olika evolutiva monoftongeringar. Dessa har skett vid olika tidpunkter och utgått från olika uttal av de betonade diftongkomponenterna.

Det finns ett stort, sammanhållet område från Flandern, genom Nederländerna, norra Tyskland, Danmark ändå upp till Västerbotten i norr med monoftongering av de urgermanska diftongerna *ai och *au. Flera olika evolutiva monoftongeringar har skett inom detta område. Detta tyder på att monoftongering inte bara sprids adaptivt genom diffusion av monoftongeringsprodukten. Monoftongeringsprocessen i sig själv kan spridas vid språkkontakt. De monoftongerade diftongerna i Danmark och Sverige är en del av ett monoftongeringskontinuum med kontinentalt ursprung.

В статье представлен этимологический и лингвогеографический анализ слов пучка и умра, зафиксированных в русских говорах Прикамья и обозначающих различные зонтичные растения (Heracleum sibiricum L., Angelica archangelica L., Conium maculatum L. и др.) или дудчатый стебель зонтичных. Представлен опыт таксономической идентификации растений, которые обозначаются лексемами пучка и умра, их вариантами и производными. Прикамский диалектный материал нанесен на карту и сопоставлен со сходным севернорусским. Утверждается финно-угорское происхождение лексем (для слова умра этимология предлагается впервые).
[The paper proposes an etymological and geographical-distribution analysis of the words puchka and umra, recorded in Russian dialects in the Kama Region. They denote various Umbelliferae plants (Heracleum sibiricum L., Angelica archangelica L., Conium maculatum L., etc.) or the fistular stem of Umbelliferae plants. A tentative taxonomic identification of plants denoted by the lexemes puchka and umra or their variants/ derivatives is proposed. All Kama Region dialect data are mapped and compared with similar Northern Russian data. The Finno-Ugric origin of the lexemes is established, with an etymology of umra proposed for the first time.]

The genitive marking of transitive objects (TOGEN) in nominalized clauses has been described in northern varieties of Basque. It has traditionally been one of the features used to demonstrate that Basque syntax is accusative (Oyharçabal 1992; Trask 2002), because of the varieties exhibiting this type of genitivization mark O, and treat both transitive (A) and intransitive (S) subjects similarly. As a result of a far-reaching search in old northern and eastern texts, we are now in a position to provide solid evidence of genitive marking of S in nominalized clauses. Intransitive subject genitives (ISGEN) are present in a range of eastern Basque texts as late as in the19th century. Our aim is to demonstrate that in subordinate clauses Basque once treated both O and S in the same manner, i.e. in ergative alignment. At this point, ISGEN has two possible explanations: a) it would be an archaism preserved in eastern Basque longer than elsewhere, as a vestige of an ancient general rule; b) as a non-successful innovation of eastern Basque.

In this paper, a survey is conducted on the phenomenon of consonantal degemination through the corpus of epigraphic materials. The aim of this research is to understand the nature of this phenomenon and its possible implications in the field of dialectological studies.