Homegardens

Species diversity in home gardens in Eastern Tyrol (Austria) has increased during recent decades. Now, 587 species are cultivated, including 75 endangered species. Species were introduced from natural ecosystems, agroecosystems and the market. Use and management of species respond to local needs and reflect co-evolutionary bio-cultural management. Gardens are important in a dynamic concept of in-situ conservation of traditional knowledge of agrobiodiversity and endangered species or local cultivars.

Loss of biodiversity is one of the most pressing environmental concerns of our time. This study assessed tree diversity and population structure in the homegarden land use of Mawsmai village, located on degraded karst landscape in East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, India. The 1667 m 2 sampled area of the village homegarden land use harbored 21 tree species. Tree density was reported to be 342 individuals ha-1. Most of the trees belonged to families that are common to the neighboring forest land. Homegarden land use was found to have the potential to conserve plant diversity on the degraded karst landscape along with improving food security.

Biodiversity conservation is one of the important ecosystem services that has been negatively impacted by anthropogenic activities. Natural forests (NF) harbor some of the highest species diversity around the world. However, deforestation and degradation have resulted in reduced forest land cover and loss of diversity. Homegarden agroforestry (AF) systems have been proven to be an intermediary for biodiversity conservation. In this study, we evaluate the effectiveness of home garden AF practices to conserve tree species diversity in Bangladesh and compare them with tree species diversity in NF. A total of nine locations were selected for this synthesis from published literature which comprised of five AF sites and four NFs. Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H) was similar for home-garden AF (3.50) and NF (2.99), with no statistical difference between them. Based on non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination analysis, the AF and NF plots showed distinct separation. However, Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index ranged from 0.95 to 0.70 indicating nearly no overlap in species composition to significant overlap between AF and NF. Based on our results, we conclude that AF can serve as an important ecological tool in conserving tree species diversity, particularly on landscapes where NF fragments represent only a small fraction of the total land area. Creating and maintaining AF habitats in such human dominated landscapes should be part of the biodiversity conservation strategy.

Resumen - Los huertos familiares de la Península de Yucatán han sido los más estudiados en el continente americano; el acervo científico generado representa una oportunidad para integrar un cuerpo de conocimiento que pueda servir de referencia tanto para investigaciones en otras regiones como para la formulación de políticas y toma de decisiones. Tomando como base alrededor de un centenar de documentos–trabajos publicados desde 1980 hasta 2017 y que incluyen cuatro libros coordinados con recopilaciones de estudios de casosobre huertos familiares en los tres estados que componen la Península de Yucatán (Campeche, Quintana Roo y Yucatán), y siguiendo la propuesta de Lope-Alzina y Howard (2012), en este documentose aborda a los huertos a partir de tres dimensiones -composición, estructura y funciones- como punto de partida para entender su complejidad. A la fecha, se ha generado un importante avance en el tema, desde trabajos meramente descriptivos hasta enfoques más analíticos que abordan aspectos múltiples del huerto; estos últimos han ido en aumento y representan un avance para ir comprendiendo la complejidad del huerto y su intrínseca relación con el grupo doméstico y el grupo social (comunidad). Los estudiosos de los huertos familiares en la Península de Yucatán, hemos dejado por sentado el valor de este sistema tradicional y la necesidad de preservarlo como espacio de producción, que genera tanto beneficios tangibles como intangibles; es prioritario transferir este conocimiento a la agenda nacional para la adecuada formulación de políticas y toma de decisiones en el tema.
Palabras clave: Agroecosistemas Tradicionales; Composición, Estructura y Funciones del Huerto Familiar; SocioEcosistemas; Solar Maya; Traspatios.
Quatro décadas de estudos em hortas familiares de Maya-Yucateco: caminhando para compreender sua
variação e complexidade Resumo - As hortas familiares da península de Yucatán foram as mais estudadas no continente americano; O patrimônio científico gerado representa uma oportunidade para integrar um conjunto de conhecimentos que podem servir de referência tanto para pesquisas em outras regiões quanto para formulação de políticas e tomada de decisões. Com base em cerca de uma centena de documentos - trabalhos publicados de 1980 a 2017 e incluindo quatro livros coordenados com compilações de estudos de caso em hortas familiares nos três estados que compõem a Península de Yucatán (Campeche, Quintana Roo e Yucatán) e seguindo a proposta de Lope-Alzina e Howard (2012), neste artigo, os pomares são abordados a partir de três dimensões - composição, estrutura e funções - como ponto de partida para entender sua complexidade. Até o momento, um progresso importante foi gerado no assunto, desde trabalhos meramente descritivos até abordagens mais analíticas que focam em múltiplos aspectos do pomar; estes últimos têm aumentado e representam um avanço para entender a complexidade do jardim e sua relação intrínseca com o grupo doméstico e o grupo social (comunidade). Pesquisadores de hortas familiares na Península de Yucatán têm certeza do valor deste sistema tradicional e a necessidade de preserválo como espaço de produção, o que gera benefícios tangíveis e intangíveis; É uma prioridade transferir esse conhecimento para a agenda nacional para a formulação adequada de políticas e tomada de decisão sobre o assunto.
Palavras-Chave: Agroecossistemas Tradicionais; Composição, Estrutura e Funções das Hortas Familiares; Socioecossistemas; Solar Maya; Quintais.
Four decades of study on Maya-Yucatec homegardens: a way to understanding their variation and complexity
Abstract - The homegardens in the Yucatan Peninsula have been the most studied ones in the American continent. The scientific heritage resulted from these studies represents an opportunity to integrate a body of knowledge that can serve as a reference source both for research in other regions and for policy formulation and decision making. Based on a review of about one hundred studies – works published from 1980 to 2017, including four coordinated books with compilations of case studies in home gardens in the three states of the Yucatan Peninsula (Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Yucatan) – and following the proposal of Lope-Alzina and Howard (2012), this article deals with three dimensions (composition, structure and functions) of homegardens/ orchards as a starting point to understand their complexity. Until now, significant progress has been made on this subject, both including descriptive studies and further analytical approaches which focus on multiple aspects of the orchards. Such approaches have been performed more frequently and represent an advance in the understanding of the complexity of homegardens and their intrinsic relationship with the domestic group and social group (community). Researchers of homegardens in the Yucatan Peninsula are sure of the importance of this traditional system and the need to keep it as a production space, generating tangible and intangible benefits. It is a priority to transfer this knowledge to the Mexican national agenda for the appropriate formulation of policies and decision-making on the subject.
Keywords: Traditional Agroecosystems; Composition, Structure and Functions of Homegardens; Socio-Ecosystems; Mayan Solar; Backyard

Owners and managers of homegardens have extensive knowledge of plants, their uses, and ecosystemic processes. This knowledge might be highly valuable for many purposes. To enhance ethnobotanical research on homegardens and encourage a discussion of proper methodology, this article presents tools and methods used to collect data in the multidisciplinary study of homegardens in Chiapas,Mexico; Eastern Tyrol, Austria; and Kalimantan, Indonesia. The article defines homegardens and gardeners and explains both the sampling process used in these studies and how contact and rapport was established. Also discussed are possible research questions and hypotheses, equipment used in the field, interviewing strategies, vegetation surveys, and data management. Interviews typically elicit information on preferred garden plants, plant management, homegarden management, and the history of gardening in the study area. It is concluded that homegardens present an excellent opportunity to use and experiment with both informal and formal techniques to collect qualitative as well as quantitative data.

Abstract
This study that focused on the Study of Plant Biodiversity Management in the Homegardens of Arba Minch Zuria (Ochollo and Channo) and Chencha (Dorze and Dookko) Woredas of Gamo Gofa Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. The study aimed at documenting information concerning plant biodiversity, local resource use norm and management and also the associated knowledge. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, free listing methods etc. Totally, 109 plant species under 97 genera and 54 families were collected and identified from eighty homegardens from the Arba Minch Zuria and Chencha Woredas. Out of the plant species recorded from the homegardens, 52% were found to be herbaceous, 27% trees, 18% shrubs and 3% lianas. Fabaceae and Poaceae were the most represented families with 7 species (6.4%) each and other families the rest position .Of the 109 plant species recorded, 40 (36.7%) species are cultivated whereas the rest 69(63.3%) species are non-cultivated or semi-cultivated useful plants managed in and around homegardens. Ensete ventricosum, Zea mays and Brassica carinata were found important food crops while Malus sylvestris, Mangifera indica, and Musa paradisiacal were important cash crops of the Woreda. Arba minch Zuria and Chencha Woredas practice agroforestry development, homegardening or field cropping to conserve and sustainably use agrobiodiversty of the area. This research work ends in concluding about the important findings and forwarding important recommendations on conservation and sustainable use of homegarden components and ethnobotanical knowledge in the area.
Key words: Homegardens, Biodiversity, Ethnobotany, Indigenous knowledge

In Uganda many farmer households manage diverse homegardens, which have been adapted over generations to supply a year-round harvest of nutritious foods. Various factors influence the agrobiodiversity of these homegardens and consequently the health of the households that keep them. Homegardens in southwestern Uganda (n=102) contained over 200 crops. Significant socio-economic and biophysical predictors of crop diversity included elevation, location, garden size, distance to market and livestock ownership. Elevation, location and garden size also differed between four garden types, identified by cluster analysis (‘diverse tree gardens’, ‘small forest-edge gardens’, ‘large, old, species-rich gardens’, and ‘large, annual-dominated herb gardens’). Quantitative ethnobotany indices confirmed that crops were mainly useful for food, economy and medicine. Comparison of agrobiodiversity data with multiple- pass 24-hour recalls, anthropometric measurements and food insecurity questionnaires (n=589, 325 and 95 respectively) indicated positive relationships between agrobiodiversity and health outcomes. Forecasts of the nutrition implications of agricultural development-decisions revealed the importance of homegardens for addressing hidden hunger and food insecurity.

The past 50 years have seen a growing realisation that conventional prioritisation of economic development in agricultural exploitation has severely undermined the natural and social capital for future generations to draw the same benefits from our ecosystems. In response, indigenous and traditional knowledge of resource management, accumulated across generations of interaction with the environment, is increasingly recognised as a source for new 'green economy' models for agricultural development underpinned by low-carbon development, resource-efficiency, and well-being for all.

This study was conducted to assess the role of homegardens for in situ conservation of plant biodiversity in Holeta Town. In the garden data collection 75 homegardens were randomly selected. Ethnobotanical data were collected using homegarden observation, semi-structured interviews and market survey. Data were analyzed using preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, and descriptive statistics. A total of 112 plant species belonging to 93 genera and 43 families were identified which were classified to 14 functional groups. Out of which, 49 species (43%) were herbs, 32 species (29 %) were trees, 28 species (25 %) were shrubs, and (3%) species were climbers. Further analysis of the results showed that 70 species were cultivated, 35 were wild while 7 species were Ethiopia domesticated. Of the cultivated species, 41.07% were food crops and 58.93% were non-food crops. Family Fabaceae consisted of the highest number of species (11 species), whereas Ensete ventricosum was the most frequently occurring species (93.75%) in the homegardens of the area. Garden was managed by males (47.93%) and females (38.41%). Of the total plant species, 13% were medicinal plants, out of which 33.33% were nutraceutical plants. Direct matrix analysis showed that Juniperus procera was the most important versatile species followed by Cordia africana. These results indicate that homegardens studied play a crucial role in food security of the households and conservation in situ of these plant resources. However, insufficient agricultural support, small-sized gardens and the shifting of polycultural farming to few income generating food crops affect the diversity of species.

Las huertas familiares son sistemas socio-ecológicos que cumplen un importante papel en la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad y de procesos socio-culturales locales. Con base en distintas fuentes bibliográficas, se compiló y analizó la información existente sobre las huertas familiares en Chile, especialmente los datos referidos a composición, riqueza y usos de especies vegetales. Se analizó la información según zona geográfica norte (N), centro-sur (CS) y sur (S) del país. Se encontraron 46 estudios, los cuales reportaron 125 especies cultivadas pertenecientes a 46 familias a nivel nacional. Del total, predominaron las plantas usadas en la alimentación (54%) y medicina (23%). Mediante el Índice de Jaccard se obtuvo una mayor similitud entre las familias de plantas cultivadas en las zonas CS y S (47%), seguido por N y S (31%). Quince familias de plantas fueron exclusivas para la zona N, nueve para la zona CS y tres para la S. De las 125 especies registradas, al menos 25 (20%) se cultivaban desde épocas pre-hispánicas (previo a 1541). Algunas especies como Chenopodium quinoa, Zea mays, Phaseolus coccineus, Solanum tuberosum y Capsicum annuum, fueron ampliamente reportadas a la llegada de los españoles, junto a otras ya extintas como Madia sativa y Bromus mango. Existe un bajo conocimiento sobre la diversidad de plantas cultivadas dentro de las huertas en Chile. En la huerta familiar se genera activamente una trama de conocimientos que permiten la mantención de especies vegetales y procesos culturales asociados. La actual disminución de la pequeña agricultura en Chile podría producir una erosión cultural y, en consecuencia, de la agrobiodiversidad asociada a las huertas familiares.

Homegardens have long been recognized for contributing to household food security, nutritional status, and ecological sustainability in especially poor, rural areas in low-income countries. However, as markets and policies drive the commercializa-tion of food and farming systems, and of rural livelihoods in general, it becomes increasingly difficult for smallholder farmers to maintain homegarden plots. Rather than autonomous spaces to grow food for self-consumption, farmers are transforming the land around their dwellings into an income-generating space by planting commercial crops for sale in urban and processing markets. The objective of this study was to examine homegarden commercialization in the Upper Citarum Watershed of West Java, Indonesia, and its effects on food security and food sovereignty. We employed a mixed-method approach to survey 81 village households involved in agricultural production. For quantitative analysis, we calculated a "homegarden commercialization index," and developed indicator frameworks to examine relationships between commercialization, household food security, and food-related decision-making. Accompanied by insights from qualitative interviews, our results show that homegardens are highly commercialized, which contributes to the spread of monocultural production in the region. We argue that homegardens should be included and supported in food, agricultural, health, environmental, and rural development policy, in Indonesia and generally.

A district-wide school garden project has been initiated in the Toledo District of Southern Belize in response to reported high rates of poverty and undernutrition. This paper will discuss research conducted in the summer of 2007 with Q'eqchi' Maya in the Toledo District to determine the effect of school gardens on household diet and gardening, the composition of the household diet, and the makeup of homegardens. Food frequency questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were conducted in two rural villages, one with a school garden program and one without. Various members of NGOs working on school garden projects in the district were also interviewed about the functionality and purpose of the projects. Results discussed herein include the limited effects of the school garden program, the role that both homegardens and school gardens play in household diet and nutrition, the diverse array of fruit trees utilized by the Q’eqchi, and a description and inventory of a typical Q'eqchi' homegarden in Belize.

This study was conducted to assess the role of homegardens for in situ conservation of plant biodiversity in Holeta Town. In the garden data collection 75 homegardens were randomly selected. Ethnobotanical data were collected using homegarden observation, semi-structured interviews and market survey. Data were analyzed using preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, and descriptive statistics. A total of 112 plant species belonging to 93 genera and 43 families were identified which were classified to 14 functional groups. Out of which, 49 species (43%) were herbs, 32 species (29 %) were trees, 28 species (25 %) were shrubs, and (3%) species were climbers. Further analysis of the results showed that 70 species were cultivated, 35 were wild while 7 species were Ethiopia domesticated. Of the cultivated species, 41.07% were food crops and 58.93% were non-food crops. Family Fabaceae consisted of the highest number of species (11 species), whereas Ensete ventricosum was the most frequent...

Promoting  quality  environment  through  home  gardens  management  is  crucial  in  order  to  enhance  ecotourism
planning and development in remote areas adjacent to national park.  The aim of the research was  to analyze  the
ethnobotanical aspect of  home  gardens  in Rajegwesi Village, Banyuwangi. Data  was collected  through a  floristic
survey and in-depth interviews. The floristic survey was conducted on home gardens along the road  corridors of
the villages. Following the floristic survey, in-depth interviews were done to explore local people perception on
structures and functions of home gardens vegetation. Data was analyzed descriptively.  Result showed  that there
were 132  plant  species  composing home gardens.  They were used as a source of  food, of medical materials,  of
livestock  food,  of  firewood,  of  ornamental  plants,  of  construction  materials,  of  toxic  elements,  of  materials  for
cultural ceremony, as well as having economic value,  and some other minor categories of uses. The diversities of
plant in home gardens are principal resources for tourism destination management. It includes home gardens to
provide  comfortable  place  to  visitor,  home  garden  as  harbor  of  consumable  and  non-consumable  plants  to
support tourism needs, and home gardens as tourism attraction

We conducted an exploratory survey in south-central Bangladesh to realize the contribution of homegardens to household domestic biomass fuel consumption. Households were placed into categories based on their land holdings. A total of thirty households were interviewed to understand their domestic fuel consumption pattern as well as the role played by homegardens in meeting their biomass fuel requirements. This study suggested that the majority of the households in the area rely extensively on homegardens to meet their domestic fuel requirements. 58% of the households biomass fuel were drawn from homegardens, followed by neighbours (16%), markets (12%) and from public/fallow land (14%). 47 species were identified from the homegardens that were used by the respondents as fuel. Fuelwood was a major type of biomass fuel used by the households, contributing to about 56% of households total biomass fuel consumption, followed by dried leaves (21%), dung cake/sticks (14%), and crop residues (6%). As homegardens were found to provide a valuable alternative source of biomass fuel, it was concluded that a rich homegarden system near forest regions should be supported in order to reduce pressure on the country’s remaining forests. Governments can facilitate this by granting marginal households access to trees in fallow lands, as well as public places including roads, railways and river banks.

Agroforestry systems have cultural, economic, social, and biodiversity conservation significance and are essential for the subsistence of communities. Is there a difference in the richness, management and use of useful plants present in the agroforestry systems (home gardens, coffee plantations, and milpa)? What is the influence of sociodemographic factors on the distribution of traditional knowledge regarding plants of these systems? Las Delicias, municipality of Juquila Vijanos, Sierra Norte of Oaxaca, Mexico, from January 2016 to May 2018. Visits to three agroforestry systems and semistructured interviews with 30 families to learn how they use the plants and to calculate the use value (UV) for each species. The similarity of floristic composition between agroforestry systems and the influence of sociodemographic factors (age, gender, schooling, economic activity and language) in the traditional plant knowledge was evaluated. The methods used were chi squared and proportions analyses, and a generalized linear analysis with Poisson distribution. The three agroforestry systems consisted of 211 of useful plants; home gardens and coffee plantations had a greater similarity in floristic composition; the dissimilarity of the milpa agroecosystem is related to seasonality. The plants with higher UVs were those with multiple uses, and are found mainly in coffee plantations. Production in these spaces is complemented to satisfy the needs of the inhabitants. Gender and economic activity are factors that influence the distribution of traditional knowledge. Agroforestry systems provide a species richness differentiated for specific purposes but complementary to each other. coffee plantation, home gardens, milpa, use value.
Resumen: Los sistemas agroforestales tradicionales tienen una importancia cultural, económica, social y en conservación de la biodiversidad; son esenciales en la subsistencia de las comunidades. ¿Existe diferencia en la riqueza, manejo y uso de plantas útiles presentes en los sistemas agroforestales (huertos familiares, cafetales, milpa)? ¿Cuál es la influencia de los factores sociodemográficos en la distribución del conocimiento tradicional sobre las plantas de estos sistemas? Las Delicias, municipio de Juquila Vijanos, Sierra Norte de Oaxaca, México; de enero de 2016 a mayo de 2018. Recorridos por tres sistemas agroforestales y entrevistas semiestructuradas a 30 familias, para calcular el Valor de Uso de cada especie vegetal. Se evaluó la similitud de la composición florística entre los sistemas agroforestales y la influencia de factores sociodemográficos (edad, sexo, escolaridad, ocupación e idioma) en el conocimiento tradicional de plantas, mediante pruebas de Ji cuadrada, de proporciones y de un modelo lineal generalizado con distribución Poisson. Los sistemas agroforestales estudiados conservan 211 especies vegetales útiles; los huertos familiares y los cafetales tienen una mayor similitud florística; la disimilitud del sistema milpa se relaciona con su temporalidad. Las plantas con mayor Valor de Uso fueron las que tienen múltiples usos y presentes en los cafetales. La producción se complementa para satisfacer las necesidades de los pobladores. El sexo y la ocupación están influyendo en la distribución del conocimiento tradicional. Los sistemas agroforestales proporcionan una riqueza de especies diferenciada con propósitos específicos, pero complementaria entre sí. Palabras clave: Cafetal, huertos familiares, milpa, Valor de Uso.

Gendered Homegardens: A Study in Three Mountain Areas of the Iberian Peninsula. As an example of the importance of gender relations in the use of natural resources, several authors have analyzed the role of women in homegardens. Gendered differences in homegarden management have been difficult to disentangle due to the often–shared nature of gardening. Here, we use an innovative approach to analyze gendered differences in the characteristics and management of homegardens. Specifically, we use information on the prevalence of different household members in gardening activities to classify homegardens as women’s, men’s, or shared. Then, we compare several garden characteristics across the three types of homegardens. For the case study, we use data from homegardens in three rural areas of the Iberian Peninsula. We found that household members generally share homegarden responsibilities in these three regions and that many homegarden characteristics vary with the distribution of gardening tasks. Specifically, we discovered that gardens managed mainly by men were larger, more distant from the dwelling, and better exposed than gardens managed by women. Men and women also used different management techniques; organic fertilizers and traditional pest control management systems predominated in gardens managed by women. Men and women also differed in how they reportedly use garden products, with women favoring household consumption versus sale or gifting. Last, gardens managed mainly by women had a larger diversity of uses for species and a larger diversity of species per unit area. Cultural norms of what is considered appropriate behavior for men and women help explain differences in garden characteristics and their plant composition and structure. Huertos y género: Un estudio en tres regiones de montaña de la Península Ibérica. En un intento de entender la importancia de las relaciones de género en el uso de los recursos naturales, varios autores han analizado el papel de las mujeres en los huertos domésticos. Debido a que muchos huertos son gestionados por varios miembros del hogar, es difícil identificar las diferencias de género en el manejo de los huertos. En este artículo utilizamos un enfoque innovador para analizar diferencias de género en las características y manejo de los huertos. Específicamente, utilizamos información sobre el predominio de diferentes miembros del hogar en el cuidado del huerto para clasificar los huertos como de hombres, de mujeres, o compartidos. Luego comparamos las características de estos tres tipos de huertos. El estudio fue realizado en tres zonas rurales de montaña de la Península Ibérica. Hallamos que las responsabilidades del manejo de los huertos son a menudo compartidas y que muchas características de los huertos varían según la distribución de las tareas. Los huertos manejados por hombres principalmente son más grandes, más alejados de la casa, y tienen una mejor exposición que los manejados por mujeres. El género también influye en el predominio de técnicas de manejo; la fertilización orgánica y los métodos tradicionales de control de plagas predominan en los huertos de mujeres. También hallamos diferencias en el destino de los productos del huerto: las mujeres favorecen el consumo en el hogar en vez de la venta o el regalo. Por último, los huertos manejados principalmente por mujeres tienen una mayor diversidad de usos de especies y una mayor diversidad de especies por unidad de área. Las normas culturales que determinan el comportamiento culturalmente correcto para hombres y mujeres ayudan a explicar las diferencias en las características, la composición, y la estructura de los huertos caseros.

Se seleccionaron 20 huertos en Cuilapam de Guerrero, Oaxaca; el estudio se llevó a cabo en dos barrios representativos; secciones de febrero a agosto del 2012, se estudiaron los huertos familiares de las secciones primera y cuarta tomando como referencia la disponibilidad de agua. El objetivo fue identificar las interrelaciones de los elementos del huerto con la estructura, función y manejo de los huertos familiares en las dos secciones, para lograrlo se utilizó método etnoecológico. Los resultados muestran que ambas secciones presentan una estructura vertical y horizontal, pero también está presente la estructura cronológica. La función principal de los huertos es la de proveer alimentos básicos a la familia; además de que permite la conservación del germoplasma in situ, permite la transmisión de conocimientos de padres a hijos y la convivencia familiar. La siembra de las plantas en la primera sección se da principalmente en macetas para aprovechar al máximo la disponibilidad de agua, la fauna representativa son las aves y los bovinos y es utilizada para venta y trabajo de campo. La siembra en el segundo barrio se hace directamente en el suelo y la fauna presente en los huertos son las aves, también hay bovinos pero son escasos. Estos espacios les permiten a las familias disponer de alimentos básicos durante todo el año; al recoger una cosecha inmediatamente siembran el producto del cual es la temporada. Finalmente, al existir en el huerto especies perennes se permite contar con una seguridad alimentaria todo el año.
ABSTRACT Twenty orchards were selected in Cuilapam de Guerrero, Oaxaca; the study was carried out in two representative neighborhoods, sections from February to August 2012, home gardens from first and fourth sections were studied taking as reference the water availability. The aim was to identify the interrelationships between garden elements and its structure, function and management in the two sections. In order to achieve this, the ethnoecological method was used. The results show that both sections have a vertical and horizontal structure, but the chronological structure is also present. The main function of the gardens is to provide basic food to family; more over, it allows in situ germplasm conservation, allows the transmission of knowledge from parents to children and family life. Planting plants in the first section occurs mainly in pots to maximize water availability, birds and cattle are the representative fauna and this is used for sale and fieldwork. Planting in the second neighborhood is done directly on the ground and the fauna in the orchards are birds and cattle, but the latter is scarce. These spaces allow families to have basic food throughout the year; when they harvest a crop, sown immediately the same product of the season. Finally, vegetal perennial species allow to have a food safety throughout the year.

food security, yet they are faced with uncertainty, system complexity and data scarcity when making such choices. We propose decision modeling as an innovative approach to help meet these challenges and offer a case study to show the effectiveness of the tool. We use decision analysis tools to model the possible nutrition-related outcomes of the Ugandan government's long term agricultural development plan termed ‘Vision 2040’. The analysis indicates potential shifts in household nutritional contributions through the comparison of the current small-scale diverse systems and the envisioned industrial agricultural systems that may replace them. A Monte Carlo simulation revealed that Vision 2040 plans outperform homegardens in terms of energy and some macronutrients, yet homegardens are likely to be better at producing key vitamins and micronutrients, such as Vitamin A. Value of information calculations applied to Monte Carlo outputs further revealed that gathering more data on the annual yields and nutrient contents of staples, pulses, vegetables, and fruits could improve certainty about the nutrition contribution of both scenarios. We conclude that the development of Uganda's agricultural sector should consider the role that agrobiodiversity in the current small-scale agricultural systems plays in national food and nutrition security. Any changes according to Vision 2040 should also include farmers' voices and current crop management systems as guides for a sustainable food supply in the region. This modeling approach may be a tool for governments to consider agricultural policy implications, especially given the data scarcity and agricultural variability in regions such as East Africa.

Medicinal plants provide indigenous and peasant communities worldwide with means to meet their healthcare needs. Homegardens often act as medicine cabinets, providing easily accessible medicinal plants for household needs. Social structure and social exchanges have been proposed as factors influencing the species diversity that people maintain in their homegardens. Here, we assess the association between the exchange of medicinal knowledge and plant material and medicinal plant richness in homegardens. Using Tsimane' Amazonian homegardens as a case study, we explore whether social organization shapes exchanges of medicinal plant knowledge and medicinal plant material. We also use network centrality measures to evaluate people's location and performance in medicinal plant knowledge and plant material exchange networks. Our results suggest that social organization, specifically kinship and gender relations, influences medicinal plant exchange patterns significantly. Homegardens total and medicinal plant species richness are related to gardeners' centrality in the networks, whereby people with greater centrality maintain greater plant richness. Thus, together with agroecological conditions, social relations among gardeners and the culturally specific social structure seem to be important determinants of plant richness in homegardens. Understanding which factors pattern general species diversity in tropical homegardens, and medicinal plant diversity in particular, can help policy makers, health providers, and local communities to understand better how to promote and preserve medicinal plants in situ. Biocultural approaches that are also gender sensitive offer a culturally appropriate means to reduce the global and local loss of both biological and cultural diversity.

Peoples living in most developing countries meet majority of their biomass fuel requirements from the forest. However, this usual practice becomes difficult to maintain as the forest of this region decreases in an alarming rate. In such context, homegardens will have to play the key role in near future where in many forest poor regions it's already playing the vital role. An exploratory study was conducted in a south-central rural village of Bangladesh to realize this potential contribution of homegardens to households domestic biomass fuel supplies, which is as well a virtually forest poor region of the country. Households were grouped into three different land holding categories and a total of thirty respondents, 10 from each category were selected randomly to understand their domestic biomass fuel consumption pattern as well as the role of homegardens to meet this fuel supply. Study suggested that, majority (87%) of the households of the area rely extensively on their homegardens to meet their domestic cooking energy requirements. During the study 47 homestead species were identified having fuel value of which 12 were identified as the most preferred species in the area. The contribution of wood fuel in households domestic energy sharing was reported as 56% followed by dried leaves (21%), dung cake/sticks (14%), crop residues (6%) and others (3%). Study finally concluded for a rich homegarden system in forest near regions to conserve country's remaining forest by providing an alternative source of biomass fuel. A participatory management of governments' fallow and khas lands, public places including road, railway and canal banks for tree farming to benefit rural land-less and marginal people were also recommended.

For many indigenous peoples, the contributions of wild edible plants go well beyond nourishment; they are often also used as dye and medicines, as well as markers of identity. However, historical and contemporary processes of land grabbing, forest loss, acculturation, and lifestyle changes may erode the transmission of plant knowledge to new generations. In this paper, we document 1) the botanical knowledge of wild edible plants and 2) perceived influences on the transmission of this knowledge to younger generations in a Mapuche community in Andean temperate forests, Chile. Thirty-seven people participated in this study. We conducted participant observation, freelists, and informal, photo-elicitation, and semi-structured interviews. A total of 47 wild edibles were recorded (42 plants were determined to species level by participants). Digüeñe (Cyttaria espinosae; Smith’s Index of Saliency, S = 0.82) was the most salient wild edible, followed by changle (Ramaria flava, S = 0.68), maqui (Aristotelia chilensis, S = 0.67), murra (Rubus ulmifolius, S = 0.59), and piñón (Araucaria araucana, S = 0.56). Participants provided detailed information on species seasonality, ecology, and changes in availability over time. Most adult women and elders had a comprehensive knowledge of wild edibles. However, younger generations were not learning what the elders had once learned. The lack of access to forests and the formal school regime were reported as the main factors interrupting the transmission of knowledge. Because Mapuche pedagogy is oral and in situ, land loss and the school regime have left younger generations with few opportunities to engage in these forms of indigenous pedagogy.

— This study was conducted in Gunugo watershed at Wolayitta zone to assess the amount of some soil chemical properties affected by traditional agroforestry practices and along different elevation gradients. The dominant agroforestry practices (homegarden, parkland and woodlot), and three elevation gradients (upper, middle and lower) were used to collect soil samples. One composite sample was taken from each sampling point from each soil depths, under three agroforestry practices and three elevation gradient with three replications to have a total of 54 soil samples at 20 x 20 m plot. Then the selected soil chemical properties among agroforestry practices and along elevation gradient was determined at p<0.05. The EC, pH and CEC of the top soil was significantly higher on homegarden than parkland and woodlot while EC, pH and total nitrogen of the sub soil were significantly higher on homegarden than parkland and woodlot. Further, only the top soil EC and CEC were significantly higher on lower elevation than upper and middle elevation and there was no significant difference in sub soil chemical parameters among elevation levels. In relation to this, most of the soil chemical properties show as the study area is being degraded. Therefore, are recommended for sustainable soil chemical property management. Hence, homegarden is suggested as a better agroforestry practice for rehabilitation of the area in a sustainable manner through enhanced accumulation of total nitrogen, good EC and CEC at all elevation gradients.

The resilience of a social–ecological system largely depends on its capacity to learn by absorbing new information to cope with change. But, how resilient are traditional knowledge systems? We explore the resilience of the traditional agricultural knowledge system of home gardeners in the Iberian Peninsula (n = 383). We use multivariate analysis to explore the co-existence of agricultural information derived from two different knowledge systems: (i) knowledge and use of landraces (representative of traditional agricultural knowledge) and (ii) knowledge and use of commercial crop varieties (representative of modern agricultural knowledge). Our analyses show a positive association between both types of knowledge: overall gardeners who are more knowledgeable about commercial crop varieties are also more knowledgeable about landraces. Despite this overall tendency, results from hierarchical cluster analysis showed different groups of traditional and modern knowledge holders. Our results suggest that (a) traditional knowledge is not a frozen and static corpus of knowledge and (b) modern and traditional agricultural knowledge are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Both maintenance of some aspects of the traditional knowledge and incorporation of some aspect of the modern knowledge seem to be core elements of home gardeners’ body of agricultural knowledge which is constantly evolving in response to changing environmental and socioeconomic conditions. Changes in traditional knowledge can be seen as a part of the general self-organizing process of this knowledge system.

Homegardens on Amazonian Dark Earths, Non-anthropogenic Upland, and Floodplain Soils along the Brazilian Middle Madeira River Exhibit Diverging Agrobiodiversity. We test the hypothesis that the agrobiodiversity associated with homegardens on three different soils—upland Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) and Oxisols (OX), and Fluvent Entisols (FL)—commonly found along the middle Madeira River in the municipality of Manicoré, Amazonas State, Brazil, is different due to the contrasting biotic, abiotic, and cultural settings specific to each of these soils. Using data from interviews with 63 farmers about food and utility species, we compare structural and floristic characteristics of homegarden agrobiodiversity. The density of individuals is higher on ADE than on the other soils (mean ± standard deviation: 715 ± 363 on ADE, 474 ± 283 on OX, 642 ± 399 on FL). ADE and OX have higher species richness (28.2 ± 5.6 on ADE, 25 ± 3.7on OX, 23.6 ± 5 on FL), while ADE and FL have a greater degree of domestication (2 ± 0.6 on ADE, 1.3 ± 0.5 on OX, 2.3 ± 0.6 on FL). ADE and OX have greater proportions of richness, density, and coverage composed of South American species, while FL has greater proportions of richness and density composed of Old World species. ADE has higher proportions of density and coverage of Mesoamerican species. Floristic composition is also different between soils: ADE occupies an intermediate position, composed of species associated with each of the other soil types and species that are most common on ADE. These differences in agrobiodiversity emerge through the interaction of human agency, plant responses, and the unique properties of soils in relation to socioeconomic and historical trajectories over time. Quintais agroflorestais em solos antrópicos, solos não-antrópicos na terra firme e em solos de várzea ao longo do médio Rio Madeira divergem quanto à agrobiodiversidade. Nós testamos a hipótese de que a agrobiodiversidade associada a quintais em três diferentes tipos de solo—solos antrópicos (ADE), latossolos (OX) na terra firme, e gleissolos de várzea (FL)—comumente encontrados ao longo do médio Rio Madeira no município de Manicoré, Amazonas, Brasil, é diferente devido às características bióticas, abióticas e culturais específicas de cada um desses solos. Utilizando dados de entrevistas com 63 agricultores sobre espécies comestíveis e úteis nós comparamos características florísticas e estruturais da agrobiodiversidade de quintais agroflorestais. A densidade de indivíduos é maior em ADE do que em outros tipos de solo (média ± desvio padrão: 715 ± 363 em ADE, 474 ± 283 em OX, 642 ± 399 em FL). ADE e OX possuem maior riqueza de espécies (28.2 ± 5.6 em ADE, 25 ± 3.7em OX, 23.6 ± 5 em FL), enquanto ADE e FL possuem um maior grau de domesticação (2 ± 0.6 em ADE, 1.3 ± 0.5 em OX, 2.3 ± 0.6 em FL). ADE e OX têm maiores proporções de riqueza, densidade e cobertura compostas de espécies Sul-Americanas, enquanto FL têm maiores proporções de riqueza e densidade compostas de espécies do Velho Mundo. ADE possui maiores proporções de densidade e cobertura de espécies Mesoamericanas. A composição florística também é diferente entre os tipos de solo: ADE ocupa uma posição intermediária, composta por espécies associadas a cada um dos outros tipos de solo e espécies que são mais comuns em ADE. Essas diferenças na agrobiodiversidade emergem a partir da interação entre ação humana, respostas das plantas e propriedades dos solos em relação às trajetórias sócio-econômicas e históricas ao longo do tempo.