Karia

Seit dem 3. Jh. v. Chr. verfügte Rhodos über einen umfangreichen Festlandsbesitz in dem der Insel gegenüberliegenden Teil Kariens. Der hier betrachtete Kern dieses Gebiets wurde rhodisches Staatsgebiet, die einheimischen karischen Bewohner waren seither rhodische Bürger. Im Laufe des 3. Jhs. v. Chr. zeigt sich im archäologischen Befund der Peraia eine tiefgreifende Veränderung, die auf ein doppeltes Interesse der Rhodier an ihrem Festlandsbesitz schließen lässt. Zum einen ging es um die Sicherung der Insel Rhodos durch eine militärische Kontrolle der Küsten des Festlands. Dies geschah durch die Einrichtung von Militär- und Flottenstützpunkten, für die starke Festungen und Schiffshäuser gebaut wurden. Zum anderen hatten die Rhodier ein wirtschaftliches Interesse an der Peraia. Überall wurden die Hänge terrassiert und Gehöfte errichtet, die mit großen Weinkeltern ausgestattet waren. Parallel dazu entstanden auf Transportamphoren spezialisierte Töpferwerkstätten. Ziel dieser Maßnahmen waren insbesondere die Produktion und der Export von ‘rhodischem’ Wein, der in die gesamte antike Welt verhandelt wurde.

ALİNDA Aydın ili Karpuzlu ilçesi sınırlarında yer alan Alinda antik kenti, Karpuzlu Ovası'nın batısındaki bir tepenin güney ve doğu sırtlarında konumlanmıştır. Karia Bölgesi'nin en egzotik antik kentlerinden biri olan Alinda, bölgenin yöresel ana kayası olan Gnays taşından yapılmış mimari eserleriyle Karia kültürünün saf güzelliğini yansı-tır. Henüz arkelojik bir kazının yapılmadığı Alinda gerek bitki örtüsünün ve doğası-nın güzelliği, gerekse günümüze kadar korunmuş yapılarıyla bölgenin en güzel gezi parkurlarından birine sahiptir. Önündeki ovaya hâkim yüksek bir tepenin üzerine ve yamaçlarına konumlanan kentin stratejik yapısı, onu İÖ 2 binyıldan beri güçlü bir yerleşim haline getirmiştir. Kentin stratejik yapısının ne kadar güçlü olduğu Hitit metinlerinden de anlaşılabilir. Araştırmacıların Hitit kralı III. Hattuşili Dönemi'ne ait olduğunu düşündükleri Tawagalawa Mektubu'nun giriş bölümünde, Piyamaradu adlı bir kişinin Attarimma kentini tahrip ettiği, bunun üzerine Lukka insanlarının Ahhiyawa kralının kardeşi Tawagalawa ve Hitit kralından yardım talep ettikleri an-latılır. Sallapa ve Waliwanda (Alabanda) üzerinden ilerleyen Hitit kralı, Waliwanda kentine geldiğinde Piyamaradu'dan Iyalanda (Alinda) kentini boşaltmasını ister.

This exceptional tomb, supposedly of Hekatomnos, the father of Maussollos is situated on a huge terrace in the centre of Mylasa, the old capital of Karia. Although it was already reused in Antiquity and plundered again as late as 2005, its discovery and the investigations since 2010 have aroudes enormous interest because of the rich and varied new evidence that it has contributed to architecture, sculpture, painting and the religious beliefs of the Hekatomnids and their contemporaries in Karia in the Late Classical period.

https://www.habelt.de
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments.  Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt. ISBN 978-3-7749-4216-5.
The Greek civilization, whose legacy remains visible to the present day, developed in several places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks often came into contact with different, sometimes significantly older and more developed cultures that helped them to advance in the sciences, arts and trade. One such crossroads of civilizations was Anatolia, a land that was the literal meeting place of east and west with an incredibly diverse population. This was reflected in the diversity of its cultures, languages and religions. There is a growing volume of new research – papers, articles and monographs – aimed at determining at least in part how these ancient societies defined themselves. The answer to this relatively complex question can only be sought in the written and archaeological evidence. We can get to know the Hellenes from written sources and their unique artistic heritage, while grave art helps to fill in the rich mosaic of their Anatolian neighbors. The term “Greeks dwelling beyond the sea” is a paraphrase of the name for the Greeks in foreign sources (Yaunā), which referred to the inhabitants of the distant lands beyond the western frontier of the Persian Empire. In this case, the term refers to the Greeks who crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the Anatolian mainland and nearby islands.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.09.34/

This paper aims to interpret the role of indigenous sanctuaries in the Hellenization of inland Karia. Although coastal regions of Karia had been subject to Greek colonization from the Bronze Age on, mountainous inland Karia, with its own culture and language, remained fairly remote until the fourth century, when the Greek urban formula rapidly began to be applied in a conscious effort to politically (re)organize society according to the wider interests of the ruling powers. Towns were founded in the midst of established village federations and their sacred centers. A case study of Stratonikeia and the outlying sanctuaries at Lagina and Panamara examines how the relationship between town and indigenous cult worked. This relationship is further clarified by applying two current theoretical models. Finally, the author maintains that the inclusion of pre-existing cults in the politicized landscapes of the Hellenistic period was a critical factor of success for the urban phenomenon in Karia.

In this account of the Late Classical, Ionian Renaissance and its historical background I have tried to demonstrate the extent and importance of what seems to me to be a major époque in the history of ancient architecture. I have also tried to demonstrate that this did not arise and develop by chance in a small and insignificant barbarian society in a remote corner of the Persian Empire. It arose in a region which formed part of the East Greek cultural sphere. It was ruled not by Persian officials sent out by the central administration but by a local dynasty, which was familiar with Greek art, architecture, literature, history, and politics since archaic times. Through loyalty to the Persian king and aided by an unusual ability to make the most out the political possibilities, the Hekatomnid dynasty managed to play a central role in the development of the Persian-Greek relations in the 4th century BC for more than half a century until the advent of Alexander the Great. After 334 BC Alexander changed the political picture of the world, but the cultural achievements of the Hekatomnid dynasty lived on in Hellenistic, Roman and European architecture.

Stratonikeia in Karia spreads over the north slope of Kadıkulesi Tepesi and the flat area extending further. Discoveries in architecture and small finds from the ancient city range from the Bronze Age until the present. An important part of this long history encompasses the lower city on the flat area and its environs during the late antiquity.
Following the earthquakes during the second and third centuries AD, in addition to the restoration of the damaged buildings, new and monumental strong buildings were constructed. After the proclamation of Christianity as the official religions, buildings were constructed in a hurry, thus not strong enough, in the fourth century, and they were easily destroyed in earthquakes. Then, from the late fourth through the late sixth century more monumental and grandiose structures were built. A Golden Age is attested not only in architecture but also in literature; and, abundance of materials from fallen structures as well as others ready to use paved the way for “Late Antique Gathering” and a new process of constructions. Starting in the first quarter of the seventh century, the city shrank in overall with many areas abandoned, and settlement continued only in a small area in the northeast.
The present study presents a general evaluation of the remains and finds from the late antiquity uncovered in the course of excavations and surveys within the city walls of Stratonikeia and environs.

Aydın yakınlarında 19. yüzyılda bulunan, müzikal notasyonu ile birçok bilim adamının ilgisini çeken bu yazıt birçok çalışmada, günümüze dek kalan en eski müzik eserlerinden biri olarak bilinmektedir. Yaygın şekilde “Seikilos’un Şakısı” olarak bilinen yazıt, bulunduğu andan itibaren maceralı bir yolculuk geçirmiştir.

The inscription known as ‘The Pride of Halikarnassos’ or ‘Salmakis inscription’ (late 2nd-early 1st cent. BC) provides a significant example of the self-representation of a late Hellenistic city as well as of the construction of its cultural memory. In particular, a historical and mythological analysis of lines 15-22 of the text – devoted to the myth of the local nymph Salmakis and the Greek hero Hermaphroditos – allows us to appreciate a refined process of reconstruction and reinterpretation of Halikarnassian history. Through the work of the anonymous poet, the city of Halikarnassos remodels the traditions and accounts that depict its foundation, and even remodels its real past, in order to shape a renewed mythical identity. In doing so, the city highlights the most prominent features of the local history, such as ethnic mixture and integration. The eponymous nymph Salmakis plays the major role in this process, representing the homonymous ancient community, territory and spring, whose historical role and importance remains alive in the memory of Hellenistic Halikarnassos.

Bu çalışmada Ion ve/veya Dor düzenine dair özellikler gösteren (ya da gösterdiği düşünülen) Karia bölgesindeki kırk dokuz kaya mezarı mimari açıdan değerlendirilmiştir. İki ana bölüme ayrılmış olan çalışmanın ilk bölümünde, kaya mezarlarında görülen baskın mimari üslup olan Ion düzenine ait mimari elemanlar aşağıdan yukarı doğru olmak üzere sırasıyla incelenmiş; taşıyıcı elemanların her biri için o elemanla ilgili bölüm sonlarında, taşınan elemanlar içinse topluca olmak üzere mimari elemanların oranlamaları diğer yapılarda görülenlerle karşılaştırmalı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Mimari düzenlere dair veriler sunan kapı bölümleri de ayrıca incelemeye alınmıştır. İkinci bölümde ise aynı yöntemle kaya mezarlarındaki Dor düzenine ait mimari elemanlar incelenmiştir. Her ne kadar kaya mezarlarının, normal Ion ve Dor mimarisinden ayrılan yönlerinden dolayı yalnızca mimari üzerinden tarihlendirilmesinin sağlıklı olmadığı görülse de ayrıntılı olarak yapılmış karşılaştırmalı mimari inceleme sonucunda yakalanan ipuçları sayesinde mezarlar için sunulmuş tarihleme önerileri sorgulanabilmiş ve tarihleme önerisi getirilmemiş olan mezarların hangi tarihlere ait olabileceği üzerine yorum yapılabilmiştir. Bu inceleme sonucunda kaya mezarlarına prototip oluşturduğu düşünülen yapılardan hangilerinin mezarlar üzerinde daha fazla etkili olduğuna ve mezarlardaki mimari cephe düzenlemesi uygulayıcılarının kimliğine de açıklık getirilmeye çalışılmıştır.
In this thesis, forty nine rock-cut tombs in Karia region which has Ionic and/or Doric features were evaluated in terms of architecture. This thesis separated into two main sections. In the first section of the thesis, the architectural elements of the Ionic order which is the common type in the region, have been examined respectively from bottom to top. The proportions of the architectural elements have been evaluated comparatively with the ones seen on the other structures at the end of the sections for each element below entablature, and then collectively for the parts of entablatures. The doors which present data about architectural orders were also examined. As to second section, Doric architectural elements of the rock-cut tombs have been examined by using the similar method.Even though the rock-cut tombs are considered unhealthy to be dated basing only on their architecture, because of their features separating from the normal Ionic and Doric architecture; thanks to clues found as a result detailed, comparative, architectural examination, previous dating propositions for the rock-cut tombs could have been questioned and comments could have been made on what dates would the tombs with no dating proposition would have been of. As consequence of this examination, the prototypes for rock-cut tombs and also identities of the builders of these tombs have been tried to be clarified.

Prologos

Anadolu'nun gizemleri her gittiğim yerde aramaya devam ediyorum. Karia (Karya) bölgesi Lykia'nın (Likya) kuzeyinde sayısız kez Bodrum'a (Halikarnassos) giderken hızla geçtiğim ama kısıtlı zamanım nedeniyle bir türlü durup gezemediğim bir bölge. Antalya bölgesinde birlikte yürüdüğüm Andost Doğa Grubu başkanları Cemal Ertugay ve Ümit Durak bölgeye yaptıkları keşif gezisinden döndükten sonra neolitik kaya resimlerinden ve Latmos'un gizemlerinden söz ettiler. 19 Mayıs tatilini de dikkate alarak dört günlük bir Latmos (Beşparmak) Menderes Milli parkı kültür ve fotoğraf gezisi için yola çıktık. İlk hedef Heraklia " Kapıkırı " köyüne gidiyoruz. Köyün antik Heraklia kenti üzerine kurulduğunu öğreniyoruz. Nereye gitsem karşıma belirli sorular çıkıyor. Bunlar arasında en sık karşılaştığım paradoks 2 esasında antik kentlerin ahalisinin nereye gittiği ve bugün bu coğrafyada yaşayan insanların kökeninin nereden kaynaklandığıdır. Anadolu halklarının kökeni konusunda ortalıkta dolaşan bir çok hipotez var. İdeolojik/romantik temelli yaklaşımları bir yana bırakırsak ortada bilimsel verilere dayanan hipotezler azınlıkta kalıyor. En yaygın olanı da Orta Asya'dan Moğolların önünden kaçan Türkmen/Oğuz boylarının MS.10. yy. dan itibaren oba oba (çadır çadır) Anadolu'ya giriş yaptıkları; 1071 Malazgirt Savaşı ve aradan geçen bin yıl içinde tüm Anadolu'ya yayılarak çoğaldıkları ve bugünkü nüfus yapısını oluşturdukları hipotezidir. Bu " Orta Asya'dan gelen Türkmenler (Türkler) " hipotezi aslında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nu yıkılmaktan kurtaracak bir formül arayan önce Tanzimat aydınları, daha sonra onların sentezi İttihat ve Terakki kurmaylarının ve sonraları da ikisinin antitezi cumhuriyet kadrolarının imparatorluk tebaası konumundan cumhuriyet vatandaşı konumuna geçiş yapması gereken ahaliyi eğitmek için eğitim sisteminde tarih kitaplarına yerleştirdikleri bir kurgu cevap olarak hala kullanılmaktadır. Moderniteyi yüz elli yıl gecikmeyle yakalamaya çalışan entelektüel Tanzimat aydınları ve yeni bir ulus yaratma peşinde olan cumhuriyet kadroları kendileriyle halk arasında bulunan eğitim uçurumunu biliyor ve " vatandaşa masallar " icat ederek kapatmayı ummuşlar. Oysa bu çabanın ters teptiğini şimdi yüz yıl sonra görüyoruz. İleriye gitmesi gereken eğitim seviyesi giderek düştüğü gibi eğitimsiz kitlelerin siyasi tercihleriyle dönüşerek karanlıklara doğru yuvarlanan bir cumhuriyet var şimdi. 1 Bugünkü adıyla Beşparmak Dağlarının bulunduğu coğrafyanın antik çağda adı Latmos olarak geçmektedir. Bugünkü Bafa gölü de Latmos körfezi'nin B.Menderes nehrinin alüvyonlarla körfezi doldurmasıyla lagünleşmesi,nden meydana gelmiştir. 2 Paradoks, görünüşte doğru olan bir ifade veya ifadeler topluluğunun bir çelişki oluşturması veya sezgiye karşı bir sonuç oluşturmasıdır. Türkçe'ye, Fransızca paradoxe sözcüğünden türeyerek giren paradoks sözcüğünün, etimolojik anlamda kökeni Yunanca paradoksos yani "karşıt-çelişen (düşünce)"dir. Paradokson, paradoks (karşıt düşünce) içeren iddia anlamındadır. (Yunanca para: Yan(ında), boyunca; üzerinden, dışa; karşı. Yunanca doksa: Düşünce; niyet. Ayrıca Yunanca dogma: Düşünce; karar; tez.) Bu Yunanca kökenli sözcüğün Latince'ye paradoxus olarak girmesi, sözcüğün daha sonra (17. yüzyılda) batı dillerinde yer almasını sağlamıştır. Kökende sözcük "kabul görmüş bir düşünceyle çelişen, karşıt bir ifade" anlamında kullanılır.

In summary, the Karians lived in a close symbiosis with the Greeks, first the Mycenaeans, then especially the Ionians, for more than a millennium. Interestingly, Karian-Dorian contact was not that long-lived, nor was it as intensive as the Ionian-Karian one. This remains true until the Hellenistic period, when Rhodes established its large peraia on the Karian mainland. 
The peninsula of Knidos existed as a Dorian Greek ‘island’ on the Karian mainland from at least Geometric times onwards. The Isthmos was surrounded by the other cities of the ‘Dorian Hexapolis’, and connected with them via the sea. The Triopion, the common sanctuary of the Dorian city league, was located at its western tip, Cape Tekir. The peninsula was easy to cut off from the hinterland, which allowed the Knidians to build a five stadia long ditch at its narrowest point to protect themselves from the advancing Persian army (Herodotus 1.174).
The ‘Dorian’ past of Halikarnassos receded in favour of a ‘Kekropid’-Ionian one early on, as is indicated in her foundation story in the Hellenistic Salmakis Epigram. The reason will have been Halikarnassos’ exclusion from the Dorian ‘Hexapolis’ in the sixth century BCE, henceforth a mere ‘Pentapolis’, comprising the Dorians concentrated on the adjacent islands of Rhodes and Kos, whose only mainland footings were Knidos and the Triopion.
From the fifth century BCE on, the Karians gradually gave up the main marker of Karian identity, their language and script, in favour of the Ionian one. Their closeness to the Ionian Greeks, as well as the will to widen their zone of influence, may have caused the Hekatomnids Maussollos and Idrieus to back the refoundation of the Ionian League and the common festival of the Panionia at Mt. Mykale. This is strongly supported by their involvement in the refoundation of New Priene, the city managing and protecting the Panionion (see § 6.3). At the same time, however, the parallel relocation of Knidos, again initiated by Maussollos,  may have aimed at the simultaneous control of the adjacent Triopion.  It is important to note that the new Karian capital at Halikarnassos was a former member of this league (see § 1). The Hekatomnids clearly aimed at establishing their influence on the Greek mainland also, again instrumentalising Greek as well as Karian cults: the relief from Tegea testifies to the translation of Zeus Labraundeus to the Peloponnese by Ada and Idrieus (Fig.17), while around 345 BCE, dependent Miletos erected statues of the ruling couple in Panhellenic Delphi, instead in her own oracle sanctuary in Didyma. 
The Hekatomnids have this ambition in common with another Hellenized ‘barbarian’ people (Isocrates, Philippus 105–108), who were ultimately more successfull: the Macedonians. When Alexander the Great conquered Karia in 334/33 BCE, Ada adopted him. For this stroke of genius he made her satrap of Karia. Nevertheless the Hekatomnid dynasty came to an end, when she died in 324 BCE.  After her death or slightly earlier, the Karian language was gradually replaced by Attic Koiné. This is evident from the recently found bilingual proxeny-decree in Kaunos, dated to c. 322-314 BCE, which was written in local Kaunian-Karian and in Attic Koiné. 

I hope to have shown that the final assimilation of the Karian language and culture into the Greek, recognizable even in the loss of Karian personal names, is not the result of a cultural inferiority. This is simply the version of history that the Greeks have fostered, and passed on until today. They stylised the Karians as the prototypical ‘barbarians’ in the process of their own ethnogenesis as Hellenes. They did this with sayings like the following, which was still being repeated as late as the fifteenth century CE (Diogenianus Epicureus 6.24; Michael Apostolius, Paroemiae 12.37):
Λυδοὶ πονηροί, δεύτεροι δ’ Ἀιγύπτιοι, τρίτοι δὲ πάντων Κᾶρες ἐξωλέστατοι.
“The Lydians are base, second the Egyptians, but third and most abominable are the Karians”.

It was the failure of Karia to achieve political independence and unity that was decisive for the loss of its cultural identity.  The central rule of the Hekatomnid dynasty (395/94 or 392/1 to 324 BCE) was too short-lived,  and the cultural impact of Alexander and the Diadochi on Karia was too strong, while the Karian ‘Chrysaoric League’ (third/second century BCE) was too weak and active too late, and by no means purely Karian as it incorporated the Macedonian colonists in Stratonikeia (cf. Strabo 14.2.25) 
The Karians, like many other ‘Luwic’ people of Asia Minor, disappeared in the Roman Imperial period at the latest. Only the name of the land survived as the Byzantine province of Karia up to the thirteenth century CE, signalling the remnants of some form of ‘regional identity’.

Bu tez çalışması kapsamında Türkiye’nin güneybatısında yer alan Karia Bölgesi’nin ilk başkenti olan Mylasa’nın, yerel tanrıları ve Mylasa’ya ait kutsal alanlar incelenmiştir. Kültler, ikonografik özellikler ve arkeolojik veriler göz önüne alınarak detaylı analizler yapılmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında Mylasa merkezi ve yakın çevresi esas alınmıştır. Arkeolojik kalıntılar yerinde incelenmiştir. Mylasa’da Zeus ile adapte olmuş yerel tanrılar, baskın Hellenik etki ile sonradan birleştirilmiş olan Anadolu kökenli tanrılardır. İlginç bir tanrı olan Sinuri ise bu söylemin dışında kalmaktadır. Sinuri, Zeus ile birleştirilmemiş ve orijinal ismiyle tapınım görmüştür. Bu tez çalışması yeni varsayımlar ile gelecek araştırmalara ışık tutacaktır./In this thesis, Karia regions first capital city Mylasa, which is located in southeast of Turkey, examined with its local gods and sanctuaries. For this research mainly cults, iconographic features and archaeological data used for detailed analysis. In the scope of this research, center of Mylasa and places that nearby examined. Archaeological remains examined in their find spot. In Mylasa, local gods who were adapted with Zeus, Anatolian based gods with dominant effect of Hellenic can be seen but extraordinary god called Sinuri except from these gods. Sinuri was not adapted with Zeus and people kept his name while they were worshipping on him. This research will illuminate future researches with new assumptions.

2006-2008 yılları arasında Tralleis antik kentinin güneybatı yamacında yapılan kazılarda, Tralleis üretimi olan DSB (ESB) grubuna ait çok sayıda seramik ele geçmiştir. 2013 yılında bu alandaki çalışmalara devam edilmiş ve bir seramik atölyesine ait olduğu düşünülen duvarın bir bölümü ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu duvarın içinde, silindirik biçimli bir pişmiş toprak mühür ele geçmiştir. Mührün  bir ucunda palmet ve diğer ucunda rozet motifi yer almaktadır. Her iki motifin aynı mühür üzerinde yer alması dikkat çekicidir. Ayrıca bu alandan çok sayıda  kırmızı astarlı seramik parçaları ele geçmiştir. 

During the excavations carried out on the southwestern slope of the ancient city of Tralleis between 2006 and 2008, a large number of ceramics belonging to the DSB (ESB) group produced by Tralleis were found. Excavation in this field was continued in 2013 and
part of the wall, which is thought to belong to a sigillata workshop, was unearthed.
A cylindrical terracotta seal was found inside this part of the  wall.There is a palmet at one end and a rosette at the other end. It is noteworthy that both motifs are located on the same seal. In addition, a large number of red slipped pottery pieces were found from this area.

In this thesis, which is based on the Karia Religion located on the South-
Western Anatolian geography, the cults of the goddess of Archaic and Classical periods of the region are being studied, discussed, subject matter, myths, rituals, temples, open air temples and goddess images.
Especially the political and economic conditions of the Hellenistic Period, the main goddess cults which we saw to begin to pass inward can be evaluated independently from each other, it is of great importance that we can understand the cultural structure of the period. Cults, often judged in a cultural activity, have always been involved in political, social and economic activities during the antiquity, contrary to what is believed. Thus, a culture understanding assumes a role equivalent to the understanding of both social structure, political order and economic power at the same time. In addition, the issue we carry on the title makes it essential to address many problems, as the archaic and classical periods discuss the perception of faith over the major goddess cults in the particular of Karia. At the beginning of these problems comes the complex structure of the methods scientists will benefit when it comes to cults.

Die Historizität der sogenannten Ionischen Migration nach Westkleinasien steht außer
Frage. Indessen sind die Prozesse, die in der späten Bronze- und frühen Eisenzeit bei der Akkulturation und Ethnogenese der griechischen ‘Ioner’ sowie der indigenen luwischen und verwandten Völker, im besonderen der Karer, abliefen, nur in groben Zügen aufgeklärt. Die Gründe hierfür sind verschieden und werden im vorliegenden Beitrag zusammengefaßt: Zum einen steht für diese wichtige Periode die Siedlungsarchäologie in der Kontaktzone Südionien-Karien, geographisch der Bereich des Mäanderdeltas um die Poleis Milet, Priene und Myous herum, erst am Anfang. Zum anderen ist im Falle der Karer mit einer erhöhten Assimilationsbereitschaft zu rechnen, die diese Kultur bereits in der Spätbronzezeit zu kennzeichnen scheint. Ein weiteres Problem bilden schließlich die schriftlichen Quellen und ihre Interpretation:
Die hethitischen Archive erweisen die griechisch-karische Kontaktzone um Milet-Milawanda als stark umkämpften Brückenkopf des mykenischen Reiches von Ahhijawa im 14./13. Jh. v. Chr. Mithin siedelten also schon in der späten Bronzezeit Griechen im späteren Südionien, allerdings gegen den indigenen Widerstand des luwischen Königreiches von Arzawa-Mira, des Volkes der *Karka von Karki™a, dem späteren Karien, und der zentralkleinasiatischen Großmacht der Hethiter. Diese Überlieferung bricht aber während der sogenannten Seevölkerstürme Anfang des 12. Jhs. v. Chr. zur Zeit der Zerstörung von Troja VIIa, Hattu™a und Milet VI ab. Zum Zeitpunkt des Einsetzens der ersten griechischen Quellen (Homer, Hesiod) im späten 8. Jh. v. Chr. ist die in den sogenannten Dunklen Jahrhunderten (Mitte 11. – 1. Hälfte
8. Jh. v. Chr.) erfolgende erneute Migration von Griechen nach Westkleinasien bereits abgeschlossen. Das ‘ionische Ethnos’ hat sich um das zentrale Heiligtum des Poseidon Helikonios an der Mykale (Panionion) konstituiert. Die erhaltenen Gründungsmythen, ob kollektive (Ioner) oder individuelle (einzelne Poleis),
dienen einer gräkozentrischen, retrospektiven Geschichtskonstruktion. Trotzdem: Einheitlich ist die Überlieferung, was die mehr oder weniger gewaltsame Auseinandersetzung der griechischen Migranten mit den indigenen Völkern betrifft, etwa den Karern. Hier liegt demnach Erinnerung an tatsächliche Geschichte
vor, wie dies am Beispiel des SH-III-C-zeitlichen bis submykenischen, ‘karischen’ Milet VII (12. – Mitte 11. Jh. v. Chr.) zu zeigen versucht wird.

As a result of Persian rule in Western Anatolia, construction activities came to a standstill in the 5th century BC. From the first quarter of the 4th century BC, the conditions changed, and the wars between the Athenians, Spartans and Persians ended in favor of the Persians. After the King’s Peace in 387/6 BC, Athens had to give up its desire to control Western Anatolia and Anatolia was completely under Persian control. The King's Peace started a new period of prosperity and stability under Persian rule, and as a result, Western Anatolia experienced one of the most advanced periods in the history of architecture, called the “Ionian Renaissance”, when the Archaic Ionian culture began to revive with the Hekatomnid Dynasty. In this process, Hecatomnus and his successors managed to keep their regions away from the mixed political environment during their rule, as a result, new cities were established in the region or existing cities were rearranged and large-scale structures were started to be built again.
The aim of this study is to determine the reflections of the period called “Ionian Renaissance” in Knidos. In this context, firstly, the examples of the Karian-Ionian lewis hole in the city with the double corner bond technique, which is one of the characteristic applications of the Ionian Renaissance, will be emphasized. It is thought that the details of the double corner bond technique applied in the towers of Knidos will make an important contribution to the historical development of this masonry. In addition to the characteristic applications, the general characteristics of the period in question in the city will also be briefly evaluated.

The necropoleis of Knidos are relatively well-preserved compared to the necropoleis of Western Anatolia. In the eastern necropolis, hundreds of monumental tombs still exist, and one can observe numerous examples regarding the traditional tomb architecture of Knidos. The common characteristics of these tombs are the simple grave cells surrounded by walls, sometimes with “U” formed walls with one side open and enclosed mostly by four-sided walls. This traditional form in Knidos was referred to as temenos or peribolos type of tombs. As one of the circular walled Tumuli only represented with three examples in the Knidos necropolies, the Tumulus of Saranda and its findings constitute the subject of the study. According to the evaluations conducted on the burial findings, the circular wall, dromos, and two tombs at the center of the tumulus (Tombs II and III) must have been built in the second half of the 3rd century BC. The same area was used again as a second burial around the middle of the 2nd century BC or a little later. The last comprehensive construction and burial site in the Tumulus were built in the 2nd century AC. The form is the only difference between the circular walled tumuli and the traditional architecture of tombs in Knidos. Therefore, rather than the observed form of these walls, it’s the meaning that they give to the tomb, which is important in the traditional tomb architecture of the city. Based on the circular walled tumulus, which is the subject of this article, it can be stated that although it is observed as a different tomb type, the same tradition continued in the necropolis of Knidos. Either in rectangular or in circular form, these walls aimed to separate the family graves from others and to bring a monumental view to these non-extravagant tombs.

published in:

Henry, O. – Belgin-Henry, A. (eds.) 2020. Karialılar: Denizcilerden Kent Kuruculara – The Carians, from Seafarers to City Builders. Istanbul, 156-171

with a Turkish translation by İpek Dağlı Dinçer

you can order the book here:

https://www.yapikrediyayinlari.com.tr/yazarlar/ayse-belgin-henry

After his first trip to Karia, L. Robert noted the exceptional character of the rock-cut ‘temple’ grave of Berber İni near Mylasa in Karia. He was so impressed by the structure
that he suggested, in a later publication, that it could be the tomb of Hekatomnos. The author offered no argument to support this thesis, which was limited to a short footnote. Since then, other scholars have had the same idea. But, none of them provided any specific evidence to support this theory. The aim of the present study is to have a new look at the question, based on a geographical, topographical, architectural and structural analysis of this unique grave, and to discuss the consequences of such a possible identification.

Quoique toujours largement débattu, le phénomène de pétrification architecturale est un usage de l'Antiquité désormais reconnu. Un exemple particulièrement éloquent de cette transition technique nous est fourni par l'architecture funéraire lycienne. Force est en effet de constater que les concepteurs des tombes rupestres à façade de maison, réparties sur l’ensemble du territoire de la Lycie, ou des “tombes-maison” monumentales, comme celles de Xanthos, cherchèrent à reproduire dans la pierre une architecture, probablement plus ancienne, en bois.
Un nombre important de tombes à chambre, découvertes ces dernières années en Carie, semble relever du même phénomène de pétrification. Ces tombes furent construites quasiment à l'identique et dans un laps de temps relativement court : la deuxième moitié du IVe siècle a.C. Une analyse structurelle comparative révèle que ces tombes, bien que construites en pierre, répondent toutes aux exigences liées à la construction de structures en bois. La fouille récente d'une nouvelle tombe de ce type, située entre Mylasa et Labraunda, permet d'étayer la théorie selon laquelle ces tombes souterraines à poutres seraient les héritières de types funéraires plus anciens, construits en bois.

This paper discusses the tombs that were identified during archaeological surveys conducted in the northwest of the border of Yatağan district in 2018 and 2019, many of which have not been subject to any scientific study. Two of these tombs are subterranean chamber tombs; one is a tumulus with krepis walls while five are rock-cut tombs bearing different features. The first of the subterranean chamber tombs is located on theborders of Koranza, just north of Lagina. The tomb consisting of one vestibule and a burial chamber, was built using limestone and conglomerate blocks. In the tomb, which marble was preferred for the burial beds, it is seen that both the top cover and the furnishings inside the tomb feature simple arrangements. The Taşkesik tomb in the southwest of Lagina was built entirely of marble and consists of a front chamber and a main tomb chamber. Although it is difficult to determine some details on the top cover and the interior furnishing of the tomb featuring quite high-quality workmanship due to the destruction caused by unlicensed excavations, it is clear that it has greater detailed workmanship than the Koranza tomb. During the study, the architecture of the tombs, the functions of the rooms, the applications preferred in the entrances located in the passage between the rooms, the findings related to the burial beds and the top cover were evaluated by means of comparison with other examples in the region. Though the burial chambers under tumuli are not foreign to the Caria Region, it is a new type for our research region. The circular krepis wall surrounding the tomb chamber in Gökgedik Tumulus consists of a dromos and a chamber. These walls that form the boundary of tombs in the circular shaped tumuli featuring krepis walls, documented in almost every region of Anatolia, both prevent the decomposition and erosion of the material that forms the top of the tomb and provide a monumental appearance to the structure by forming a platform.
The rock-cut tombs in the region present different features. While the Deliklitaşini rock-cut tomb presents a unique example with the lack of the north wall, the İmize and Zeytinköy rock-cut tombs are the representatives of a very common type in the region with their plain facade and Π-shaped interior furnishings. The Kurudere rock-cut tomb is an important example with its different applications in its interior furnishing, but what is more important is the terrace formed in front of the tomb for the dead cult. The Hankuyu rock-cut tomb, on the other hand, constitutes the rural example of a tomb type seen very commonly after Stratonikeia was liberated from Rhodes and gained its political and economic independence. While the tombs found during the 2018 and 2019 surveys show that the active families in the rural settlement took as example the tombs of the aristocratic segment living in cities, each of these tombs are like a symbol of the statuses held by those in the tombs at the time they were alive.

This thesis deals with the sanctuaries and the cult of god Zeus in Caria of Asia Minor during the antiquity. The presence of god Zeus in this geographical space is important and dates from the archaic age and this is apparent both in literary sources and the archaeological evidence from that period. From all the sanctuaries of Zeus in Caria, we could say that the most organized and dominant of them, were the sanctuaries, dedicated in the local cults of the god. The study unfolds in 4 major chapters. The first chapter, titled “Sanctuaries and cult of Zeus in the carian towns” includes a detailed presentation of all the sanctuaries of Zeus located in Caria. There are excavated sanctuaries and sanctuaries known from inscriptions or ancient authors as well. The second chapter, titled “The presence of Zeus and his symbols at Hecatomnid coinage”, examines the coins of Hecatomnids, in which Zeus and his major symbol in Caria, the double axe (labrys), appear. All the cult names of Zeus, which are known from the area of Caria are presented at the third chapter, titled “Names of Zeus in Caria”. In the last chapter of the main part of the study are assembled the conclusions of the research, based on what was discussed above.

The Halikarnassos peninsula has a particular significance in the geography of ancient Karia. This prominent place relates to the idea that the peninsula was the land of the Lelegians who are described in various documents as the ancestors of the Karians. Research on Lelegian society
and the identity of those people was initiated by the first explorers of the peninsula nearly two centuries ago. Following the long-term surface studies carried out in the peninsula by Wolfgang Radt in the 1970’s, we also conducted comprehensive excavations in Pedasa as well as rescue excavations in Termera which gave us the opportunity to review the basic issues of the early archaeology of the peninsula. The following article aims to present the results of our research conducted through long-term surveys and rescue excavations carried out in Termera and other sites of the peninsula, which should help to shed some light on the Lelegians and their settlement patterns.

Lykia ve Karia coğrafi bölgeleri, Anadolu’nun Akdeniz’i Ege’ye bağlayan güneybatı köşesinde yanyana komşu iki kültür bölgesini oluşturur. Bu iki bölge sadece kara değil, aynı zamanda Akdeniz ile Ege sularının birbirine karıştığı deniz komşusudur. Ortaklık iki bölgenin Paleocoğrafyasına da yansımıştır. Dağlar her iki bölgeye de hakimdir. Denize bağlanan nehir yatakları boyunca ulaşım ağı üzerindeki yerleşimler, bu ulaşım ağı yoluyla taşınan kültürel etkilere her dönemde açık kalmıştır. Denize dik inen dağlar arasında oluşan gemilerin sığınmasına elverişli derin koylar çevresinde oluşan liman yerleşimleri Ege ve Akdeniz kültürlerinin, kıyılardan dağlarla ayrılan iç bölge yerleşimleri ise daha çok Orta ve Batı Anadolu kültürlerinin etkisinde gelişim göstermiştir.

Amos is situated on the Asarcık hill, which is located at the southwestern side of modern
Marmaris in Turkey. Archaeological surveys at Amos (Carian Chersonese) and its environments
started in 2019. The pottery gathered during the fieldworks are mainly from Asarcık, which
consists of the Acropolis of the city, İnbaşı and İncirlipınar Valley in the South, Zeytinburnu in the
North and the Sandaleylik hill in western direction. This paper aims to present the unpublished
ceramics and establish the ceramic chronology and repertoire of Amos. The pottery evidently
showed that the settlement activity in Amos begun in the Archaic period. Epigraphic data published
by various scholars point out that Amos was ruled by the city of Lindos at Rhodes politically and
benefited economically during the Hellenistic period. The quantity and the quality of ceramics
also point out that the Amians were wealthy during the Hellenistic period and could obtain
various goods and products from other Mediterranean sites. Transport amphoras from Rhodes and
Cnidos reflect the close ties of the city undoubtedly. Moreover, the existence and the density of
the amphoras produced by local workshops like Hieroteles reflect the scale of the intra-regional
relations. Besides, imported material from eastern Aegean sites reflect the active trade connections.
The latest datable material revealed that Amians inhabited the city and its environments until the
end of the late Antique Period uninterruptedly, contrary to common beliefs.

İnsanoğlu, tarih öncesi dönemlerden itibaren, hastalandığında kendini iyileştirebilecek arayışlar içine girmiş, bu arayış sürecinde çevresinde bulunan flora ve faunadan yararlanmış, çeşitli yol ve yöntemler uygulamıştır. Tarih öncesi dönemlerde avcılık ve toplayıcılık yaparken, deneme ve yanılma yoluyla fark ettiği herbal özelliği olan bitkileri, zaman içinde kültüre alarak beslenmedeki alışkanlıklarının yanı sıra hastalıkları içinde kullanılabilme özelliğini keşfetmiş ve kendince geliştirdiği yöntemlerle drog elde etmiştir. Bilimsel arkeolojik kazılardan elde edilen verilere göre tarih boyunca insanoğlu, çevresindeki herbal özelliği olan bitkileri yaşantısının bir parçası olarak gündelik hayatına aktarmıştır. Herbal özelliği bulunan bu bitkileri tasvir sanatında betimleyerek nesnel gerçeklerle ilintileme ve gösterme ihtiyacı duymuştur. Gündelik hayatın vazgeçilmez aracı olan sikkeler, ilgili hanedan, krallık ve kent devletinin garantisi altında, belli bir ağırlık ya da değeri olan, madeni parça üzerine darp edilen sembol ve simgelerden oluşur. Bu simgeler hanedan, krallık ve kentin ismi, yöneticisi, değeri, dinsel devinimi yanında flora ve faunanın sağlık açısından faydalı olan bitkilerini de simgeleştirmiştir. Örneğin, Cyrene ve Selinus sikkelerinde betimlenen bitkiler enerji verici, sağlık konusunda hastalıklara karşı bağışıklığı güçlendirici ve tedavi edici özelliğinden dolayı vurgulamıştır. Bu makalede ise Idyma sikkeleri üzerinde görülen, drog yapımında kullanılan ve herbal özelliği bulunan Anadolu Sığla Ağacı yaprağı betimli, sikkeler incelenmiştir.