Caria

Seit dem 3. Jh. v. Chr. verfügte Rhodos über einen umfangreichen Festlandsbesitz in dem der Insel gegenüberliegenden Teil Kariens. Der hier betrachtete Kern dieses Gebiets wurde rhodisches Staatsgebiet, die einheimischen karischen Bewohner waren seither rhodische Bürger. Im Laufe des 3. Jhs. v. Chr. zeigt sich im archäologischen Befund der Peraia eine tiefgreifende Veränderung, die auf ein doppeltes Interesse der Rhodier an ihrem Festlandsbesitz schließen lässt. Zum einen ging es um die Sicherung der Insel Rhodos durch eine militärische Kontrolle der Küsten des Festlands. Dies geschah durch die Einrichtung von Militär- und Flottenstützpunkten, für die starke Festungen und Schiffshäuser gebaut wurden. Zum anderen hatten die Rhodier ein wirtschaftliches Interesse an der Peraia. Überall wurden die Hänge terrassiert und Gehöfte errichtet, die mit großen Weinkeltern ausgestattet waren. Parallel dazu entstanden auf Transportamphoren spezialisierte Töpferwerkstätten. Ziel dieser Maßnahmen waren insbesondere die Produktion und der Export von ‘rhodischem’ Wein, der in die gesamte antike Welt verhandelt wurde.

THE CULT OF DIONYSOS IN ASIA MINOR
IN THE ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE

Making his presence, which can be traced long before the Archaic Age, deeply felt mainly in Hellas, Asia Minor and then in Rome throughout the ancient world, Dionysos, depending on the place and time, appears before us sometimes as a god of grape-wine, sometimes as a god of theatre and acting arts and sometimes as a religious power shaped according to the local needs, however, he has generally been a god of nature representing the fertility and abundance. According to the inscriptions, Dionysos was mentioned with many epithetons in Asia Minor of the Roman Imperial Age, and that he was a god of nature bringing abundance-fertility and his many other features can be observed by these epithetons. Depending on the long stated customs, the cult of Dionysos in Asia Minor survived throughout the Roman Imperial Age (especially in the II-III. Century A.D. with festivals, cult associations and structuring, artists (musicians, players, dancers) that served his cult. According to the written records, festivals such as Dionysia, Lēnaia, Anthestēria, Trietēris organized in the name of Dionysos were celebrated. Dance, music and play competitions were made in these festivals maintained by the rich citizens or directors and not commonly known cult rituals were performed. Besides the associations of synodos artists called by different names in different times in the large cities of the west, cult associations broad in scope such as thiasos, speira or cult member groups with large audience in various names were active both in worshipping and these festivals. In order to achieve this, undoubtedly, both artist associations and cult associations had to have a well organized governing structure. Names were given to the cult members according to the task taken. These members also had to pay a membership fee in order to be a member or to continue to be one. Actually, these fees were as important as the epimeletes in the mainta-nance of these associations. In addition, they were supported both mate-rially and spiritually by the Roman emperors or provincial governors. Although the paganic religious activities in the lands of Asia Minor under the control of Rome were left to the free will of the cities, they would not be strong without the respect shown for the cults of the emperors, emperor and the Roman goddess (Dea Roma). The worshipping of Dionysos could only develop with the close relations with the emperors and the Roman Empire. Correspondingly, supporting a paganic cult significant for the people, the Roman Empire gained the sympathy of the people and also kept them loyal to Rome. The deification of the Roman emperors began with General Marcus Antonius, who was wellcomed as “New Dionysos” on his arrival to Ephesos, and continued in the Roman Imperial Age. During this period the associations in Anazarbos, Ankyra, Ephesos, Teōs, Aphrodisias and Sardeis characterised Emperor Hadrianus, Commodus and Caracalla by this epitheton. Thus, they deified them by considering them equal with Dionysos. Dionysos also had common worship with imperial or Dea Roma cult besides the common paganic worship of Zeus and Dēmētēr. Like all other paganic religions, the cult of Dionysos broke down with the strengthening Christianity with which it had opposite doctrines and finally with the acceptance of Christianity as the official religion of the state. However, many features of the Dionysos cult continued to exist in Asia Minor both in Christian features and local cultures and traditions. Today it still continues this effect.

Arkaik Çağ’dan çok daha eskilere götürebildiğimiz varlığını, coğrafi olarak başta Hellas, Küçükasya ve sonraları Roma olmak üzere tüm Antik Çağ coğrafyasında etkin bir şekilde hissettiren Dionysos, yer ve zaman farkına bağlı olarak, bazı yerlerde üzüm-şarap tanrısı, bazılarında tiyatro ve sahne sanatlarının tanrısı, bazılarında ise yerel ihtiyaçlar doğrultusunda şekillendirilmiş dinsel bir güç olarak karşımıza çıkmıştır. Ama genel olarak bereket ve bolluğu temsil eden bir doğa tanrısı kimliğine sahip olmuştur. Yazıtlardan anlaşıldığına göre Roma İmparatorluk Çağı Küçükasyası’ nda birçok epitheton ile anılan Dionysos’un, bolluk-bereket getiren bir doğa tanrısı olduğu ve diğer başka özellikleri gene bu epitheton’larından anlaşılmaktadır. Küçükasya’daki Dionysos kültü Roma İmparatorluk Çağı boyunca (bilhassa M.S. II-III. yüzyılarda), öncesinden gelen bir geleneğe bağlı olarak şenlikleri, kült dernekleri ve yapılanması, kültüne hizmet eden sanatçıları (müzisyenler, oyuncular, dansçılar) ile varlığını sürdürmüştür. Yazılı belgelerden bu dönemde büyük ve zengin kentlerde hâlâ Dionysia, Lēnaia, Anthestēria, Trietēris gibi Dionysos adına tertiplenen şenliklerin kutlandığını; masrafları, epimeletes olarak bildiğimiz kentin zengin vatandaşları ya da yöneticileri tarafından karşılanan bu şenliklerde külte ilişkin dans, müzik ve oyun yarışmaların yapıldığını ve herkesçe bilinmeyen kült ritüellerinin uygulandığını öğrenmekteyiz. Bilhassa batı kesimlerdeki büyük kentlerdeki, farklı dönemlerde farklı isimlerle anılan synodos sanatçı derneklerinin yanında thiasos, speira gibi daha geniş kapsamlı kült dernekleri ya da en yaygını mystai olan çeşitli adlar altında toplanan geniş kitleli kült üye grupları hem tapınımda, hem de bu şenliklerde aktif olmuşlardır. Şüphesiz ki bunu gerçekleştirebilmek adına gerek sanatçı dernekleri gerekse kült dernekleri, iyi organize olmuş bir idari yapılanmaya sahip olmak durumundaydı. Bu derneklerde üstlendikleri görevlere göre adlandırılan kült üyelerinin, üye olabilmeleri veya üyeliklerini sürdü-rebilmeleri için ödemek zorunda oldukları aidatlar da vardı. Esasen bu derneklerin finansmanının karşılanmasında bu aidatlar, en az epimeletes’ ler kadar önemliydi. Ayrıca Roma imparatorlarının ya da eyalet yöneticilerinin hem manevi hem de maddi desteğini alıyorlardı. Zira bu dönemde Roma egemenliği altında bulunan Küçükasya topraklarındaki pagan dinsel yaşam her ne kadar kentlerin özgür iradesine bırakılmışsa da, imparatorlara, imparator ve Roma Tanrıçası (Dea Roma) kültüne gösterilen saygı olmaksızın güçlü kalamazdı. Küçükasya Dionysos tapınımı da, tamamıyla imparatorlar ve Roma İmparatorluğu ile kurulan güçlü bağlar sayesinde gelişebilmiştir. Bununla paralel olarak da Roma İmparatorluğu, halk için önemli olan pagan bir kültü destekleyerek, hem halkın sempatisini kazanmakta, hem de böylece onların Roma’ya olan bağlılığını sürdürmek amacını gütmekteydi. General Marcus Antonius’un Ephesos’a gelişinde “Yeni Dionysos” olarak karşılanmasıyla başlayan Romalı devlet adamlarını tanrılaştırma geleneği, Roma İmparatorluk Çağı’nda da sürmüş; bu dönemde özellikle Anazarbos, Ankyra, Ephesos, Teōs, Aphrodisias ve Sardeis’teki dernekler, İmparator Hadrianus, Commodus ve Caracalla’yı bu sıfatla nitelendirmişler, böylece onları Dionysos ile bir tutarak tanrılaştırmışlardır. İmparatorluk veya Dea Roma kültü ile ortak tapınımı da görülen Dionysos’un Zeus ve Dēmētēr gibi pagan tanrı-tanrıçalarla da ortak tapınımı söz konusudur. Diğer pagan dinler gibi Dionysos kültünün yıkımı da, öğretilerinin birbirine tamamen ters düştüğü Hıristiyanlık dininin güçlenmesiyle ve nihayetinde M.S. 391’de imparatorluğun resmî dini olmasıyla gerçekleşmiştir. Ancak Dionysos kültünün birçok unsuru, Küçükasya topraklarında, gerek Hıristiyanlık unsurlarında gerekse halk kültür ve geleneklerinde yaşamaya devam etmiştir. Bugün de bu etkisini göstermeye devam etmektedir."

SEG 60-1998. Religion. Dionysos: his cult in Asia Minor, Imperial period:
On the basis of archaeological, numismatic, and (mainly) epigraphic attestations, B.Öztürk,Roma imparatorluk çağı Küçükasaysı’nda Dionysos kültü (Istanbul 2010), studies the cult ofΔιόνυσος in Roman Asia Minor. After general remarks about the god, he presents a geographically arranged catalogue of the relevant inscriptions with brief comments (ph. of some texts). On 196-209, Ö. provides a register with explanations of the most important terms found in the inscriptions, and on 210/211 a list of epithets.

ALİNDA Aydın ili Karpuzlu ilçesi sınırlarında yer alan Alinda antik kenti, Karpuzlu Ovası'nın batısındaki bir tepenin güney ve doğu sırtlarında konumlanmıştır. Karia Bölgesi'nin en egzotik antik kentlerinden biri olan Alinda, bölgenin yöresel ana kayası olan Gnays taşından yapılmış mimari eserleriyle Karia kültürünün saf güzelliğini yansı-tır. Henüz arkelojik bir kazının yapılmadığı Alinda gerek bitki örtüsünün ve doğası-nın güzelliği, gerekse günümüze kadar korunmuş yapılarıyla bölgenin en güzel gezi parkurlarından birine sahiptir. Önündeki ovaya hâkim yüksek bir tepenin üzerine ve yamaçlarına konumlanan kentin stratejik yapısı, onu İÖ 2 binyıldan beri güçlü bir yerleşim haline getirmiştir. Kentin stratejik yapısının ne kadar güçlü olduğu Hitit metinlerinden de anlaşılabilir. Araştırmacıların Hitit kralı III. Hattuşili Dönemi'ne ait olduğunu düşündükleri Tawagalawa Mektubu'nun giriş bölümünde, Piyamaradu adlı bir kişinin Attarimma kentini tahrip ettiği, bunun üzerine Lukka insanlarının Ahhiyawa kralının kardeşi Tawagalawa ve Hitit kralından yardım talep ettikleri an-latılır. Sallapa ve Waliwanda (Alabanda) üzerinden ilerleyen Hitit kralı, Waliwanda kentine geldiğinde Piyamaradu'dan Iyalanda (Alinda) kentini boşaltmasını ister.

Aydın yakınlarında 19. yüzyılda bulunan, müzikal notasyonu ile birçok bilim adamının ilgisini çeken bu yazıt birçok çalışmada, günümüze dek kalan en eski müzik eserlerinden biri olarak bilinmektedir. Yaygın şekilde “Seikilos’un Şakısı” olarak bilinen yazıt, bulunduğu andan itibaren maceralı bir yolculuk geçirmiştir.

The inscription known as ‘The Pride of Halikarnassos’ or ‘Salmakis inscription’ (late 2nd-early 1st cent. BC) provides a significant example of the self-representation of a late Hellenistic city as well as of the construction of its cultural memory. In particular, a historical and mythological analysis of lines 15-22 of the text – devoted to the myth of the local nymph Salmakis and the Greek hero Hermaphroditos – allows us to appreciate a refined process of reconstruction and reinterpretation of Halikarnassian history. Through the work of the anonymous poet, the city of Halikarnassos remodels the traditions and accounts that depict its foundation, and even remodels its real past, in order to shape a renewed mythical identity. In doing so, the city highlights the most prominent features of the local history, such as ethnic mixture and integration. The eponymous nymph Salmakis plays the major role in this process, representing the homonymous ancient community, territory and spring, whose historical role and importance remains alive in the memory of Hellenistic Halikarnassos.

Bu çalışmada Ion ve/veya Dor düzenine dair özellikler gösteren (ya da gösterdiği düşünülen) Karia bölgesindeki kırk dokuz kaya mezarı mimari açıdan değerlendirilmiştir. İki ana bölüme ayrılmış olan çalışmanın ilk bölümünde, kaya mezarlarında görülen baskın mimari üslup olan Ion düzenine ait mimari elemanlar aşağıdan yukarı doğru olmak üzere sırasıyla incelenmiş; taşıyıcı elemanların her biri için o elemanla ilgili bölüm sonlarında, taşınan elemanlar içinse topluca olmak üzere mimari elemanların oranlamaları diğer yapılarda görülenlerle karşılaştırmalı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Mimari düzenlere dair veriler sunan kapı bölümleri de ayrıca incelemeye alınmıştır. İkinci bölümde ise aynı yöntemle kaya mezarlarındaki Dor düzenine ait mimari elemanlar incelenmiştir. Her ne kadar kaya mezarlarının, normal Ion ve Dor mimarisinden ayrılan yönlerinden dolayı yalnızca mimari üzerinden tarihlendirilmesinin sağlıklı olmadığı görülse de ayrıntılı olarak yapılmış karşılaştırmalı mimari inceleme sonucunda yakalanan ipuçları sayesinde mezarlar için sunulmuş tarihleme önerileri sorgulanabilmiş ve tarihleme önerisi getirilmemiş olan mezarların hangi tarihlere ait olabileceği üzerine yorum yapılabilmiştir. Bu inceleme sonucunda kaya mezarlarına prototip oluşturduğu düşünülen yapılardan hangilerinin mezarlar üzerinde daha fazla etkili olduğuna ve mezarlardaki mimari cephe düzenlemesi uygulayıcılarının kimliğine de açıklık getirilmeye çalışılmıştır.
In this thesis, forty nine rock-cut tombs in Karia region which has Ionic and/or Doric features were evaluated in terms of architecture. This thesis separated into two main sections. In the first section of the thesis, the architectural elements of the Ionic order which is the common type in the region, have been examined respectively from bottom to top. The proportions of the architectural elements have been evaluated comparatively with the ones seen on the other structures at the end of the sections for each element below entablature, and then collectively for the parts of entablatures. The doors which present data about architectural orders were also examined. As to second section, Doric architectural elements of the rock-cut tombs have been examined by using the similar method.Even though the rock-cut tombs are considered unhealthy to be dated basing only on their architecture, because of their features separating from the normal Ionic and Doric architecture; thanks to clues found as a result detailed, comparative, architectural examination, previous dating propositions for the rock-cut tombs could have been questioned and comments could have been made on what dates would the tombs with no dating proposition would have been of. As consequence of this examination, the prototypes for rock-cut tombs and also identities of the builders of these tombs have been tried to be clarified.

İnsanlık tarihi ile paralel şekilde gelişen tedavi yöntemleri, doğal şartlara uyum sağlamak ve zor koşullardan korunmak için devamlı gelişmiştir. İnsanlar, rahatsızlıklarına çözüm yolu bulmak amacıyla çevrelerinde bulunan bitkileri gözlemleyip, zamanla kullanımını tecrübe etmişlerdir. Toplayıcılık yaparken deneme ve yanılma yoluyla tıbbi açıdan önemli olduğunu fark ettiği bitkileri, kendisi için fayda sağlayan diğer önemli tür bitkiler gibi kültürüne almış ve ıslahını yapmıştır. İlk başlarda, kendisine faydası olduğuna inandığı bitkileri sadece yiyerek hastalıklarına çare arayan insanoğlu, daha sonra tedavide kullandığı bu bitkilerin özünü veya daha doğrusu etken maddesini keşfederek, rahatsızlıkları için bilinçli şekilde ilaç elde etmeye başlamıştır.

Amos is situated on the Asarcık hill, which is located at the southwestern side of modern
Marmaris in Turkey. Archaeological surveys at Amos (Carian Chersonese) and its environments
started in 2019. The pottery gathered during the fieldworks are mainly from Asarcık, which
consists of the Acropolis of the city, İnbaşı and İncirlipınar Valley in the South, Zeytinburnu in the
North and the Sandaleylik hill in western direction. This paper aims to present the unpublished
ceramics and establish the ceramic chronology and repertoire of Amos. The pottery evidently
showed that the settlement activity in Amos begun in the Archaic period. Epigraphic data published
by various scholars point out that Amos was ruled by the city of Lindos at Rhodes politically and
benefited economically during the Hellenistic period. The quantity and the quality of ceramics
also point out that the Amians were wealthy during the Hellenistic period and could obtain
various goods and products from other Mediterranean sites. Transport amphoras from Rhodes and
Cnidos reflect the close ties of the city undoubtedly. Moreover, the existence and the density of
the amphoras produced by local workshops like Hieroteles reflect the scale of the intra-regional
relations. Besides, imported material from eastern Aegean sites reflect the active trade connections.
The latest datable material revealed that Amians inhabited the city and its environments until the
end of the late Antique Period uninterruptedly, contrary to common beliefs.

Through an analysis of the textual and archaeological material, this article presents a new, up-to-date overview of the history and mechanisms of Iron Age Anatolian overland interaction, a much-neglected subject. Among other points, the overview demonstrates the importance of Phrygia in this context, and that Lydia did not take over its international contacts completely. A case study of the transmission of the alphabet in light of the insights gained concludes the article. A new theory is proposed, according to which the Phrygian and Greek alphabets had a common origin in Cilicia, in the late ninth century BC.

The Sanctuary of Sinuri is located 15 km southeast of Milas district in Muğla province. The sanctuary is situated on a 540-m-high hill, known as Asar Tepe, which lies between Yukarı Kalınağıl and Çamlıbelen villages (Fig. 1). The sacred precinct of the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods covers an area of approximately 30 m x 60 m, and architectural re- mains dating to various periods from the Archaic to the Byzantine have also been identified within the boundaries of the sanctuary.

The epigraphical poem known as ‘Pride of Halikarnassos’ or ‘Salmakis inscription’ (late 2nd-early 1st cent. BC) provides a significant mythical account of the colonial expeditions that led to the foundation of Halikarnassos, featuring heroes and deities from several parts of the Greek world. The paper analyzes the first section of the list of colonizers, trying to understand the role of the characters involved, i.e. Athena, Bellerophontes and Pegasos, within the cultural history of Halikarnassos, not disregarding the clues that may come from linguistic considerations. The marking of the boundaries of the indigenous land, which constitutes the core of this phase of foundation, receives here an explanation within the general sense of the poem: far from representing the brutal annexation of the territory, it is one of the ways in which the city of Halikarnassos presents itself as both genuinely Greek and deeply embedded in its Karian background.

This article examines and discusses a new Carian inscription found on the left leg of a kouros statue. The statue was found in the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in the ancient Carian city of Euromos during excavations carried out in 2021. The four-line inscription is very difficult to interpret, but nonetheless constitutes a highly relevant contribution to our knowledge of the evolution of the Carian alphabet.

The Phoenix Archaeological Project (PAP) is an interdisciplinary and multinational cooperative survey project conducting in southwestern Turkey (Marmaris) in ancient Phoenix.

The center of the ancient Phoenix is located 4 km south of Taşlıca village in the southwestern part of the Bozburun Peninsula, Marmaris (Turkey). Hisartepe consists of the fortified acropolis of the city, and the core of the settlement measures approximately 2.5 ha. The top of the acropolis rises 250 m above the Sindili Plain and the lower town of the Phoenix.

The Apollo sanctuary and an early Byzantine basilica are situated 500 m north of the acropolis and connected by an ancient road. The necropolis of the Phoenix covers the northern and southern sides of the acropolis, and the stepped-base funerary monuments are still visible on site. The ancient agricultural terraces around the Sindili Plain complete the historical landscape that shows us the production scales of the site through the ages. The preliminary observations imply that the Serçe and Gedik Bay in the southern part of the Sindili Plain served as the ancient harbors of the Phoenix.

The region is entirely open to illicit excavations and looting of artifacts. The cultural and natural heritage in the southwestern part of the peninsula is heavily threatened by urban and agricultural expansion and change to the landscape visually, endangering its biodiversity. It is believed that the multidisciplinary and new generation approaches will advance awareness, education, fieldwork, preservation, publication, and research of the archaeological remains and cultural heritage in Phoenix and its territory, which is why PAP is designed as an interdisciplinary and multinational cooperative survey project to identify and document the tangible and intangible cultural heritage and reimage the settlement pattern and land use from antiquity through the modern period at Phoenix.

For these purposes, PAP is developing long-range multidisciplinary subprojects and collaborate with various areas such as geoarchaeology, architecture, archaeoseismology, ecology, anthropology, archaeometry, sociology, and history. PAP is also developing social responsibility and education programs in the peninsula with nonprofit organizations as the Mediterranean Conservation Society, American Research Institute in Turkey (ARIT), and the Şirince Archaeological Association.

For the purposes mentioned above, the first year of the fieldwork at Phoenix was conducted between September and October 2021. This presentation aims to present some data gathered from the 2021 fieldwork at Phoenix.

Mylasa is one of the most important cities in Karia region in ancient times and has a very important place in terms of shedding light on the archeology of the region. The fact that the city was located in a geography that kept its importance from antiquity to today has caused it to be settled continuously and therefore few of the archaeological remains of the city have survived until today. The Corinthian column capitals at the Milas Museum, which is considered within the scope of the study, are important in terms of shedding light on the history of this destroyed urban architecture. These headings, belong to different architectural structures brought from Mylasa and its environs to the Museum, constitute  the main subject of the research. In this study where twenty Corinthian type column headings in the museum garden and store were examined, the fact that the history of the headlines was not clear brings up the problem of location. For this reason, the headings were dated and compared with similar examples

One of the Rhodian demes in the Karian Chersonesos, Amos is located on a promontory called Asarcık, lies almost 20 km southwest of Physkos, modern Marmaris. This headland 102 m high, projected eastwards and jutting out between two bays to the north and the south. As a fortified settlement on a hill, Amos has a strong defense system consisting of ramparts, towers, and gates. The theatre and the small temple are the best-known buildings of the city. Information about the history of Amos is very limited. Archaeological evidence shows the history of the city dates back to the VIth century B.C. The city became a part of the Rhodian Peraea as a Lindian deme during the Hellenistic period. It is known that the fertile lands of Amos were leased throughout the period by the lease agreements which were found at Amos and in its vicinity. Amos displays the characteristics of a Hellenistic settlement. Concerning the layout, the city on the hill was enclosed by a fortification and towers. The city walls employed irregular ashlar masonry with a combination of polygonal and rectangular blocks. The public buildings of the settlement such as the theatre and the temple are situ-ated on the acropolis. Amos has one of the four theatre in the incorporated Peraea. Just to the west of the theatre, the acropolis terrace houses a sanctuary. The main goal of this study is to present new evidence and finds regarding the history of the city, the settlement and its architecture.

Although several studies have been carried out on the ancient history and the archaeology of Caria, which is situated in southwestern Turkey where the Aegean meets the Mediterranean, there are still many questions to be answered. Foremost among these are the connection between the Lelegians and the Carians and the ethnical and cultural relationships of these populations to the Cretan-Minoans and Mycenaeans. The Halikarnassos peninsula (modern Bodrum), which became the centre of interest through the research conducted by W. Radt in the 1970s, has a unique significance because of the different types of buildings and grave monuments attributed to the Lelegians. In the following study, the stone tumuli and the influences on the formation of this tradition will be discussed in the light of new data and the preliminary results from recently conducted surveys and excavations in Pedasa.

Imbued with Greek tradition, exposed to the influence of the Ionian culture of Asia Minor, and occupying a strategic position, the city of Halikarnassos was chosen by Maussollos as the new capital of the Satrapy of Caria and is often regarded as the core center of the satrap’s Hellenizing policy. Looking at the city’s institutions and at its 4th-century artistic and architectural achievements, studies have emphasized Halikarnassos’s progression towards complete Hellenization and challenged the claim that the Hekatomnids aimed at promoting a shared feeling of Carian identity. Yet some aspects of the city’s social and cultural history suggest that the distinction between “Greek” and “Carian” was in fact extremely nuanced and oscillating: not only was Halikarnassos characterized by a vivid ethnic and cultural mixture, but, as the epigraphic and literary tradition reveals, it is the civic community that ultimately chose whether to present itself as “Carian” or “Greek” or the both together, according to contingent political and cultural factors.

The monetarization of the markets accelerated in the 5th century BCE led to the monetarization of the cults. The mercantile logic and money-oriented society shaped the transaction between the worshippers and the cults of Demeter. The relationship to deities was regulated by ‘do ut des’, i.e. one gives something so that the deity may give something in return. The epigraphic sources from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE give insight into the finances of the Eleusinian cult and illustrate the extent of monetarization of the cult of Demeter.