Lexical Semantics

According to early Arab lexicographers, the Koranic personage of Lūṭ (the biblical Loth) is at the origin of a lexical family of Classical Arabic. The object of the present article is to reflect, as a linguist, on the formation and interpretation of each member of this rather large family, whose core is liwāṭ. Besides two nouns directly derived from Lūṭ, it includes several verbs formed thereon as well as a number of nominal forms associated with such verbs. The scope of this case study lies in calling into question the formal and semantic relations currently regarded as the best established in the field of lexical derivation in Classical Arabic

3 rd International Conference on NLP & Artificial Intelligence Techniques (NLAI 2022) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of NLP & Artificial Intelligence Techniques. The Conference looks for significant contributions to all major fields of NLP and Artificial Intelligence in theoretical and practical aspects. The aim of the Conference is to provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to meet and share cutting-edge development in the field. Authors are solicited to contribute to the Conference by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the following areas, but are not limited to.

Mediante un corpus paralelo proveniente de los Informes Anuales del Fondo Monetario Internacional (2008–2012) en inglés, alemán y español, este trabajo persigue dos objetivos principales de investigación. El primer objetivo se centra en las creaciones metafóricas que constituyen el discurso institucional sobre la crisis económica de principios del siglo XXI en inglés como lengua franca. Para lograr este objetivo, se desarrolló un método inductivo para identificar las metáforas léxicas del texto original. Las metáforas con significado especializado recibieron un tratamiento especial, ya que aún no ha recibido la atención suficiente en este ámbito. Después de examinar las metáforas del texto original, el segundo objetivo de investigación se enfoca en el estudio de la traducción de las metáforas léxicas del texto original a las lenguas meta alemán y español. Para el estudio de la traducción, se siguió un enfoque basado en los factores contextuales que rodean la metáfora.

Carmen Mateo Gallego-Iniesta es licenciada en Traducción e Interpretación y tiene un Máster en Comercio Internacional. Su investigación se centra en la metáfora en el lenguaje de la economía y en la digitalización de la enseñanza universitaria. Durante su doctorado, fue invitada a la Universidad de Columbia, New York City, como investigadora visitante. Su trabajo de investigación ha sido también premiado en conferencias internacionales.

This paper presents an original methodology to consider question answering. We noticed that query expansion is often incorrect because of a bad understanding of the question. But the automatic good understanding of an utterance is linked to the context length, and the question are often short. This methodology proposes to analyse the documents and to construct an informative structure from the results of the analysis and from a semantic text expansion. The linguistic analysis identifies words (tokenization and morphological analysis), links between words (syntactic analysis) and word sense (semantic disambiguation). The text expansion adds to each word the synonyms matching its sense and replaces the words in the utterances by derivatives, modifying the syntactic schema if necessary. In this way, whatever enrichment may be, the text keeps the same meaning, but each piece of information matches many realisations. The questioning method consists in constructing a local informative str...

One of the most well-known traits attributed to Slavic languages is the rich terminology for the color "blue", with some Slavic languages (namely those from the Eastern group) recognizing two types of blue as basic color terms. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of this rich terminology, both in terms of etymology and semantics, in order to give an account of the evolution that took place in Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian. Finally, the situation from the East Slavic group is compared to a recent development in Japanese, which saw the appearance of a second basic color term for blue in the last three decades. Una dintre cele mai interesante probleme în studiul limbilor slave îl reprezintă vocabularul divers utilizat pentru desemnarea culorii albastru. Poate apărea surprinzător, de exemplu, faptul că pentru un vorbitor nativ de rusă culorile curcubeului-memorate prin formule mnemotehnice precum каждый охотник желает знать где сидит фазан ("fiecare vânător vrea să știe unde se află fazanul")-conțin cele două tipuri de albastru, eliminând indigoul: красный, оранжёвый, жёлтый, зелёный, голубой, синий, фиолетовый. Cu toate acestea, după cum vom vedea, avem de-a face cu un fenomen caracteristic doar unora dintre limbile slave, și anume limbilor slave de est. Astfel, scopul acestei cercetări îl reprezintă prezentarea termenilor utilizați pentru "albastru" în toate limbile slave (incluzând slava veche), astfel încât să avem o perspectivă holistică asupra fenomenului constatat în limba rusă. Vom face, în cele din urmă, și o scurtă comparație cu limbă care a trecut printr-o evoluție asemănătoare, fără a face parte din familia limbilor indo-europene, deși este învecinată geografic cu rusa: japoneza. Pornind din zona sud-slavă, observăm că slava veche nu avea decât un singur termen care corespundea culorii "albastru", și anume синъ. Cu toate acestea, după cum observă Kozhemyakova în studiul ei din 2011, termenul era folosit în contexte destul

The article deals with the coding of semantic information in language and examines the coding models of semantic information in verbs following the results of the analysis of the verb in Turkish-Russian language pair. The necessity of differentiation between 'action' and 'verb' categories is underlined. The connection of the action category with the logic and the verb category with the language is highlighted. The idea that different languages can name actions differently and the verbs in two languages can describe the same action using different images and different morphemes is emphasized. Following the results of the comparative study of some examples from Turkish-Russian language pair the interaction between the logic categories and the language forms, the coding models of the logic categories in the language, the nature of cognitive models are discussed. The applicability of the results for the foreign language education and translation training is highlighted.

Analizamos en el presente trabajo el preverbio "ex-" en su paso del latín al español. El estudio del preverbio en ese transcurso muestra un notable interés por diversos motivos. En primer lugar, ya en latín es un importante componente que, desde su origen adverbial, da lugar a numerosos verbos, muchos de los cuales, por vía patrimonial o por vía culta, se pueden ver en español. Ahí se aprecia ya una primera variación en el prefijo, con una variante "e-", motivada por la desaparición de la consonante prefijal en contacto con la del radical del verbo, que, por cierto, no aparece bien descrita en algunas obras de referencia del español. En segundo lugar, el análisis de los valores semánticos, sémicos y clasemáticos, del preverbio latino permite comprender más claramente los significados que adoptan los verbos en la lengua española.
Los resultados románicos son a su vez relevantes en lo que respecta a la morfología léxica y a la semántica, tanto por la variación que presenta el componente prefijal –sobre todo por los cruces con otros prefijos, como "de-" y "dis-" en su conformación de "des-" y en la propia distribución de este con "es-"–, como por el carácter productivo que hoy tiene "ex-", lejos de la función preverbial y próxima a la preposicional, cuya distinción se debe establecer. Todo ello permite aclarar muchos aspectos para el mejor conocimiento del prefijo y de las palabras a que ha dado lugar en español.

A survey of English translations of Zechariah 14:21 will yield two diverse interpretive conclusions of the text.  This difference is founded on how the Hebrew word כְּנַעֲנִי is to be understood within the context.  Some opt for the meaning of one who is “a merchant” while others maintain that the word is to be understood as referring to a “Canaanite.”  The issue is not merely a lexical one but a theological one.  The implications of the interpretive choice effect both the interpretation of the text itself and the theological emphasis of the book as a whole.  This thesis will defend the view that “Canaanite” is Zechariah’s intended meaning.  This view will be defended by a six-fold accumulative investigation of the text.  The six investigative perspectives will be expositional, lexical, structural, chronological, typological, and Biblical Theology.  The work will be divided into seven parts with the full Bibliography attached to the last section.

On croit souvent que l’origine des mots révèle leur sens. C’est une perspective biaisée, et une source de malentendus. Je donne ici un exemple classique, et montrant comment les mots peuvent, à partir d’une source unique, prendre des sens très différents. Dans de tels cas, rapporter les mots à leur origine commune sans tenir compte de ce qui s’est historiquement passé aboutit à des contre-sens dangereux. L’origine est l’inverse de l’histoire : l’histoire est un parcours évolutif, l’origine est une fiction figée.

El presente estudio se propone analizar la continuidad de los verbos formados por los preverbios o prefijos verbales "ante-", "pre-", "pos(t)-" y "sub-" en su paso del latín a las lenguas romances y, en particular, al español. Sin cambio de categoría gramatical en la base léxica, los preverbios producen una modificación semántica en términos coserianos. Menos sentido tiene considerar la prefijación un tipo de derivación al lado de la sufijación, pues, en principio, lo que hay es una composición de adverbio y verbo. Los preverbios se erigen, de esa manera, en componentes fundamentales desde el punto de vista semántico. Nuestro análisis permite entender cómo los valores de los preverbios latinos trascienden a los verbos que hoy los contienen, tanto si se trata de voces patrimoniales o cultismos como de nuevos verbos románicos.

This paper discusses the theoretical and practical aspects of transliterating Arabic names and proposes a number of criteria for consideration in developing a transliteration system, including several characteristics necessary in a transliteration standard. Theoretical issues such as the phonological system of Arabic (vowels, diphthongs, gemination, diacritics and consonants) are outlined, followed by a discussion of the associated practical issues. Proposed criteria include simplicity, convenience, practicality, and ability for back retrieval. Since Standard Arabic (SA) is used across the Arab World in formal communication and official documents (passports, birth certificates, diplomas etc.), the system should be based on a SA pronunciation. Considering how English sounds are represented in a written format is necessary in order to use such representation as a model to follow in a potential standard for the transliteration of Arabic names. 1

This paper explores the nature of core-oblique distinctions in some Austronesian languages of Indonesia, focusing on the intermediate status between core and oblique categories. It proposes a core index, a novel method to determine the core status of an argument. Core index evidence shows that there is a cline running from syntactically core to non-core (oblique). The proposed core-index-based analysis allows us to claim syntactic transitivity with confidence and to resolve successfully the controversial transitivity problem of the Indonesian bare verb construction. The analysis advances our understanding of the nature of semi-core arguments, syntactic transitivity, symmetricality of voice system, and alternative argument realisations, not only in Indonesian and Balinese, but also in other typologically different Austronesian languages of central and eastern Indonesia and beyond. Importantly, the core-index study also provides a means for cross-linguistic comparative analysis of the unusual alternative pattern of applicativisation whereby no core promotion is involved. The paper also discusses how the gradient nature of the core-oblique distinction, particularly semi-coreness of arguments, poses a challenge for any theory that posits discrete classes of relations. Abstrak Makalah ini membahas pemilahan argumen inti dan oblik dalam beberapa bahasa Austronesia di Indonesia dan sekitarnya, dengan fokus pada kajian atas argumen yang berstatus antara, ada di antara inti dan oblik. Yang diusulkan adalah indeks keintian, sebuah metode baru untuk menentukan tingkat keintian sebuah argumen. Bukti-bukti dari indeks keintian menunjukkan bahwa ada kontinuum tanpa sekat yang jelas antara kategori argumen inti dan oblik/non-inti. Analisis yang berdasarkan indeks keintian ini memungkinkan kita untuk menentukan ketransitifan sintaksis dengan lebih pasti, sehingga bisa menjawab pemasalahan ketransitifan yang sebelumnya kontroversial untuk konstruksi-konstruksi tertentu yang melibatkan verba tanpa afiks dalam bahasa Indonesia. Dengan analisis ini, ada kemajuan pemahaman kita tentang sifat argumen (semi-)inti, ketransitifan sintaksis, kesimetrisan sistem diatesis, dan realisasi argumen alternatif pada bahasa-bahasa Austronesia yang berbeda secara tipologis, di Indonesia tengah/timur dan sekitarnya. Yang juga penting adalah studi indeks keintian ini bisa menjadi alat untuk analisis komparatif lintas bahasa terkait dengan pola konstruksi aplikatif yang tidak lazim, misalnya konstruksi aplikatif yang tidak melibatkan promosi ke argumen inti. Makalah ini juga membahas bagaimana sifat ketidakjelasan beda antara argumen inti dan oblik, terutama argumen yang memperlihatkan semi-inti, menimbulkan tantangan tersendiri bagi teori tata bahasa yang mengharuskan argumen masuk dalam kotak kategori dengan sekat yang jelas.

Linguistic creativity in the Balkan area
This is demonstrated by examples from colloquial speech which are the means of linguistic creativity. The examples originate from current surveys with speakers of several Balkan languages. The contribution analyses some of the methods of lexi- cal creativity. This touches on the topics of language contact and etymology, semantics and the expressiveness of several specifically colloquial phenomena. An examination is undertaken to determine the extent to which we can trace parallels to universally applied methods of linguistic creativity.

This article analyzes some of the lexical semantic features of Barunga Kriol, an Australian creole language (Northern Territory, Australia), in comparison with Dalabon, one of the Australian Aboriginal languages replaced by Barunga Kriol. Focusing on the semantic domain of emotions, this study offers insights into how creole languages select and organize semantic meanings, and to what extent this results in lexical loss or retention. I spell out the exact nature of the lexical resemblances between the two languages, and highlight major differences as well. The conclusions of the study are twofold. Firstly, I show that the Barunga Kriol emotion lexicon shares a great many properties with the Dalabon emotion lexicon. As a result, speakers in Barunga Kriol and Dalabon respectively are often able to package meaning in very similar ways: the two languages offer comparable means of describing events in the world. From that point of view, language shift can be considered to have a lesser impact. Secondly, I show that the lexical resemblances between Barunga Kriol and Dalabon are not limited to simple cases where the lexemes in each language share the same forms and/or meanings. Instead, lexical resemblances relate to a number of other properties in semantics and combinatorics, and I devise a preliminary typology of these 2 lexical resemblances. Beyond the comparison between Barunga Kriol and Dalabon, this typology may tentatively serve as a grid to evaluate lexical resemblances between languages more generally.

The construction grammarian views a language as presenting a continuum of generality of expressions and models this continuum with an array of constructions of correspondingly graded generality. Meanings are assembled in various ways in a construction-based grammar, and this array can be represented as a continuum of idiomaticity, a gradient of lexical fixity. Constructional meanings are the meanings to be discovered at every point along the idiomaticity continuum. At the leftmost, or 'fixed', extreme of this continuum are frozen idioms, like the salt of the earth and in the know. The set of frozen idioms includes those with idiosyncratic syntactic properties, e.g., the fixed expression by and large (an exceptional pattern of coordination in which a preposition and adjective are conjoined). Other frozen idioms, like the unexceptionable modified noun red herring, feature syntax found elsewhere. At the rightmost, or 'open' end of this continuum are fully productive patterns, including the rule that licenses the string Kim blinked, known as the Subject-Predicate construction. Between these two poles are (a) lexically fixed idiomatic expressions, verb-headed and otherwise, with regular inflection, e.g., chew/chews/chewed the fat; (b) flexible expressions with invariant lexical fillers, including phrasal idioms like spill the beans and the Correlative Conditional, e.g., The more, the merrier; and (c) specialized syntactic patterns without lexical fillers, e.g., the Conjunctive Conditional (e.g., One more remark like that and you're out of here). Construction Grammar represents this range of expressions in a uniform way: whether phrasal or lexical, all are modeled as feature structures that specify phonological and morphological structure, meaning, use conditions and relevant syntactic information (including syntactic category and combinatoric potential).

No large-scale, open-domain semantic resource for Norwegian, with a
rich number of semantic relations currently exists. The existing semantic
resources for Norwegian are either limited in size and/or incompatible
with the de facto standard resources used for Natural Language
Processing for English. Both current and future cultural, technological,
economical, and educational consequences caused by the scarcity of
advanced Norwegian language-technological solutions and resources
has been widely acknowledged (Simonsen 2005; Norwegian Language
Council 2005; Norwegian Ministry of Culture and Church Affairs 2008).
This dissertation presents (1) a novel method that consists of a model
and several algorithms for automatically mapping content words from
a non-English source language to (a power set of) WordNet (Miller 1995; Fellbaum 1998c) senses with average precision of up to 92.1 %
and coverage of up to 36.5 %. Because an important feature of the
method is its ability to correctly handle compounds, this dissertation
also presents (2) a practical implementation, including algorithms and
a grammar, of a program for automatically analyzing Norwegian compounds.
This work also shows (3) how Verto, an implementation of the
model and algorithms, is used to create Ordnett, a large-scale, open-domain
lexical-semantic resource for Norwegian with a rich number of
semantic relations. Finally, this work argues that the new method and
automatically generated resource makes it possible to build large-scale
open-domain Natural Language Understanding systems, that offer both
wide coverage and deep analyses, for Norwegian texts. This is done
by showing (4) how Ordnett can be used in an open-domain question
answering system that automatically extracts and acquires knowledge
from Norwegian encyclopedic articles and uses the acquired knowledge
to answer questions formulated in natural language by its users. The
open-domain question answering system, named TUClopedia, is based
on The Understanding Computer (Amble 2003) which has previously been
successfully applied to narrow domains.

§7 Fazit
Die metonymische und metaphorische Verwendung von Körperteil-Bezeichnungen für assoziierte Handlungen darf meines Erachtens zum Grundvokabular theologischer Rede in Ägypten gezählt werden (§§5–6). Ihre Verwendung setzt nicht notwendigerweise eine körperliche Vorstellung der betreffenden Aktanten voraus (vgl. §4). Grundlage ist eine Weltwahrnehmung, in der Körperteile und mit ihnen assoziierte Handlungen kognitiv eng verknüpft sind (§3). Diese Wahrnehmung scheint aber nicht auf die antiken Kulturen beschränkt, wie eine reflektierte Betrachtung moderner Sprachen nahelegt. Als kulturspezifisch-ägyptische Besonderheiten metonymisch-funktionaler Verwendungen von Körperteil-Lexemen möchte ich folgende hervorheben (vgl. §3):
a) Emotion und Kognition ist in Ägypten ausschließlich im Leib bzw. genauer im Herzen verortet – nicht im Kopf. Im Unterschied z.B. zum Deutschen leiten sich daher vom Kopf ausschließlich Verwendungen ab, die sich auf seine hervorgehobene Position ‚ganz oben‘  Anthropomorphismus) oder ‚ganz vorne‘ (Zoomorphismus) zurückführen lassen.
b) Das Ägyptische nutzt häufiger metonymisch das ‚Gesicht‘ (ḥr) zur Ansprache des ‚Blicks‘ o.ä. (anstelle des semantisch näher liegenden ‚Auges‘ jr.t). Analog nutzt es gelegentlich den ‚Schläfenbereich‘ (mꜢꜤ) (anstelle der ‚Ohren‘) zur Ansprache des Zuhörens.
c) Das Motiv der ‚Feinde unter den Füßen/Sohlen‘ steht für politische Unterwerfung und Dominanz über den politischen Gegner.
d) Das Motiv der ‚Luft für die Nase/an die Nase‘ und des ‚Lebens an der Nase‘ steht wohl für Lebensheil. Dasselbe Motiv liegt auch einer Schöpfungstheologie zu Grunde, die den göttlichen (lichtdurchfluteten) Äther (Šw; Schu) mit dem ‚Leben‘ (Ꜥnḫ) identifiziert.
Neben weiteren finden wir die beiden Motive ‚Feinde unter den Füßen/Sohlen‘ und ‚Luft für die Nase/an die Nase‘ auch mehrfach als ‚erweckte Metaphern‘ in bildliche Medien umgesetzt (§3).

摘  要： 本文是筆者在道佛交涉研究中，為偶然發現的詞彙語義現象的歸納整理。在中國道佛交涉中，雙方均曾造構新詞用以指涉對方宗教神聖，取代對方已有舊詞的同時，夾帶貶抑對方宗教的陪義，從而實現其主動判教的動機。上述新詞的語義依賴造構時的語境，本文因而稱之為「語境造詞」，而透過「語境造詞」所成功造構的新詞，卻能離開原來造詞時的語境，而在另一語境中保留了「語境造詞」之時的語義（包括指稱對方宗教神聖的「新詞舊義」，以及額外的「夾帶貶抑陪義」）。因此「語境造詞」現象超出了語用學範圍，介入了詞彙語義學的領域。從本文的例子歸納而言，「語境造詞」造構的新詞脫離原來造詞語境後，特性如下：一、容易存活於自身宗教的另一語境，並保留「新詞舊義」及「夾帶貶抑陪義」；二、「夾帶貶抑陪義」明顯的，容易在詞海中湮沒淘汰；三、「夾帶貶抑陪義」隱藏的，可長期存活並流布民間，雖保留了「新詞舊義」，但「夾帶貶抑陪義」則可能已經剝落。

關鍵字：語境造詞，新詞舊義，主動批教，夾帶貶抑陪義，道佛交涉

Abstract: This article summarizes a phenomenon in lexical semantics accidentally discovered while studying the interaction of Taoism and Buddhism. Both religions coin new words to indicate the other’s holy objects. While replacing the original words, derogatory connotations are also entrained, so to establish initiative critiques on religions. As the meanings of those new words rely on the contexts of their coinage, the process is named “context coinage”. A successful new word coined from “context coinage” can leave the original contexts, and preserves its meaning from “context coinage” (including “new word for old meaning” that indicates the other religion’s holy object, and also “entrainment of derogatory connotation”). Therefore “context coinage” goes beyond pragmatics and enters lexical semantics. From the examples of this article, when new words of “context coinage” leave their original contexts, they have the above characteristics: 1. Easily survive in another context of their own religion, preserving both “new word for old meaning”  and “entrainment of derogatory connotation” ; 2. Those with obvious entrainment of derogatory connotation easily die out; 3. Those with implicit entrainment of derogatory connotation can live long and be widely spread. They preserve “new word for old meaning”, but “entrainment of derogatory connotation” may have been peeled off already.

Keywords: Context Coinage, New Words for Old Meanings, Initiative Critique on Religions, Entrainment of Derogatory Connotation.

A Present Perfect (PrP) predication denotes a state whose time of evaluation (R) follows one or more events of a given kind (De Swart 1998, Michaelis 1994, 1998, 2011). In its resultative function, the PrP describes the resultant state of a unique causal event (E), which may be the target state of a telic eventuality, as in (1), or not, as in (2) (Nishiyama & Koenig 2004):
1. The Eagle has landed.  (Entailed resultant state: Eagle is in contact with lunar surface)
2. Dear Feel Like a Fool: Brother, I have walked in your shoes. (Inferred resultant state: speaker understands addressee’s experience)
A seemingly paradoxical behavior of the PrP in its resultative function (RPrP), is that while the causal event is unique, its time cannot be specified adverbially, at least in most PDE dialects: *I have seen it yesterday, *We have moved here in 2012 (cf. Engel & Ritz 2000 on Australian English). Klein’s (1992) influential pragmatic explanation (the constraint arises from the quantity-based injunction against simultaneously fixing the times of both E and R) is hard to reconcile with some of the facts: (a) the constraint is not defeasible and (b) it does not apparently apply to discourses involving the past perfect, e.g., She came to work at noon yesterday. She had woken up at 10 (Kiparsky 2002). Michaelis (1994, 1998), inspired by Dinsmore (1981), proposes that the time-specification constraint is in fact an aspect of a broader constraint, attached exclusively to the RPrP, that prevents its use to specify the circumstances of E when E’s occurrence is mutually presupposed or must be taken for granted. The examples in (3-6) illustrate the operation of this constraint in various presuppositional contexts (the # indicates that many such sentences are redeemable on an existential PrP reading):
3. WH-interrogative: #How have you fixed it? (cf. How did you fix it?)
4. Manner modification: She has fixed it (#skillfully). (cf. She fixed it skillfully.)
5. Cleft: #It’s LAWYERS that #have gotten seat belts in cars. (cf. …that got seatbelts in cars)
The purpose of this paper is to extend the event-elaboration constraint to a series of contexts, only vaguely described in my prior work, in which verb class, and in particular the directionality of the denoted event, plays a role in the felicity of RPrP. This account draws on Mittwoch’s (2008) concept of target state. Relevant contrasts are given in (6-8):
6. Bi-directional transfer predication
a. Someone has borrowed my Latin dictionary.
b. [You can borrow this Latin dictionary, but be careful with it.] #It has been borrowed.
7. Creation predication
a. My daughter has painted a landscape.
b. [A: What a lovely landscape!] #B: My daughter has painted it.
8. Object-disposition predication
a. Where have you hidden my glasses?
b. #Where have you found my glasses?
I propose to refine the event-elaboration constraint by addressing exceptions concerning the target state, and the interpretive factors that define the target state. The primary interpretive factor, a metaphorical one, is presence at the speaker’s deictic center. If a theme entity is understood as mutually accessible to speaker and hearer, any predication in which that theme plays an argument role will be construed as specifying circumstances of the causal event E (of transfer, creation, disposal) rather than to S, the target state. I will discuss paraphrase diagnostics that we can use to determine the target state for each such predication.
References
De Swart, Henriëtte. 1998. Aspect shift and coercion. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 16: 347-385.
Dinsmore John. 1981. Tense choice and time specification in English. Linguistics 19: 475-494.
Engel, Dulcie M. and Ritz, Marie-Eve A. 2000. The use of the present perfect in Australian English. Australian Journal of Linguistics 20: 119-140.
Kiparsky, Paul. 2002a. Event structure and the perfect. In Beaver, David et al., (eds.), The Construction of Meaning. CSLI Publications.
Klein, Wolfgang. 1992. The present perfect puzzle. Language 68: 525-552.
Michaelis, Laura A. 1994. The Ambiguity of the English Present Perfect. Journal of Linguistics 30: 111-157.
Michaelis, Laura A. 1998. Aspectual Grammar and Past-Time Reference. London: Routledge.
Michaelis, Laura A. 2011. Stative by Construction. Linguistics 49: 1359-1400.
Mittwoch, Anita. 2008. The English Resultative Perfect and its Relationship to the Experiential Perfect and the Simple Past Tense. Linguistics and Philosophy 31: 323-351.

Lee, Min-Woo. 2019. Semantic relations from the contextual perspective. Korean Semantics,. This study discusses how to view semantic relations from a contextual perspective. From a contextualist point of view, semantic relations do not exist as a fixed within the vocabulary, but rather in the individual context of use of those who use the language. So semantic relationship is variable and complex depending on usage. Meaning depends on the individual who uses the language with intent, and people reasonably interpret individual meanings. In this process, meaning is always used for communication in an unstable state of change. Semantic relations exist not as a coherent structure but as a complex system that is constantly changing, as previously thought. Therefore, in order to understand this, we should 107pay attention to the use of semantics that progress from time to time, and through this, we can capture semantic relationships as a new structure.(Cyber Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)

This article studies a family of semantic relationships that is often ignored in terminological descriptions, i.e. opposite relationships that include but are not limited to antonymy. We analyze English and French terms classified in an environmental database as opposites (Eng. polluting; green, afforestation; deforestation; Fr. réchauffer; refroidir, atténuation; intensification) and revise this first classification based on typologies and criteria supplied by literature on lexical semantics, psycholinguistics and corpus linguistics. Our revised classification shows that diversified opposite relationships can be observed between terms. They also appear to display the same complexity as in general language. Finally, in some cases, the nature of concepts in the specific subject field must be taken into consideration.

கணினி சொல்லியல் (computational lexicology) என்பது அகராதியைப் பற்றி படிப்பதற்குக் கணினியைப் பயன்படுத்துவதைப் பற்றிக் கூறுகின்ற கணினிமொழியியலின் கிளை ஆகும். இயந்திரம் படிக்கவியலும் அகராதிகளைப் பற்றி படிப்பதுதான்  கணினி சொல்லியல் எனக் குறுகலாகவும் வரையறை விளக்கம் செய்வர்.  இது கணினி அகராதியல் என்பதிலிருந்து வேற்படுத்தப்படவேண்டும்.  கணினி அகராதியியல் என்பது கணியைப் பயன்படுத்தி அகராதியை உருவாக்குவதை குறிப்பிடும்.

This paper aims to analyze difficulties for bilingual lexicographical representation of verbs of motion and manner-of-motion in both Spanish and German and offers some suggestions for overcoming these difficulties in bilingual dictionaries. The starting point is the use of the descriptions of the different ways expressing motion in Spanish and German, in order to highlight the differences and particularities that create most problems when trying to establish lexical correspondences. These difficulties are primarily related to the differences in meaning – but they also have to do with differences in combinatory behavior of verbs and with the frequency of use of these constructions in both languages.

The causative-inchoative alternation has been a subject of much debate. It might also be a case where variation patterns that escape existing typologi-cal descriptions provide a new perspective on the problem. We analyze the variability and systematicity of alternative argument structure realizations, together with corresponding aspectual/event properties, by considering three different ways in which change-of-state verbs can be semantically and syntactically construed in Romance. Under the general assumption that the syntactic projection of arguments correlates non-trivially with event structure , we apply a novel theoretical approach to the semantics and syntax of the causative-inchoative alternation. We argue that different verbal heads can be independently combined to yield contrasting verbal configurations, with corresponding event/argument structure properties quite freely. Alongside standard cases such as causative and inchoative frames, we discuss what we call 'stative-causative constructions' [SCC], where the initiator appears as the sole argument. The general properties of this additional (third) variant suggest the availability of a null causative (external-argument-selecting) v 0 producing original monoargumental structures with corresponding (simpler) event structure. These little-known Spanish data challenge current argument structure theories assuming that the causative v 0 necessarily implicates the eventive (BECOME) component, or that the latter figures in the verb's permanent lexical entry. SCCs provide empirical evidence suggesting that what is commonly described as a basic unaccusative/transitive verb may have unergative uses.

In constrast with Nêlêmwa (Oceanic, New Caledonia) whose lexemes are most generally subcategorised as nouns or verbs and undergo category-changing derivations, in Amis (Formosan), roots are pervasively categorially neutral, yet they contain semantic features and instructions that allow or disallow combination with primary derivational affixes which specify their class and category. Lexical categories are expressed once roots are derived into morphosyntactic words and projected in a syntactic frame; they are then quite rigidly subcategorised as verbal, nominal or adjectival-modifying heads. Still, word forms display some functional flexibility; for instance, nouns and derived nouns, pronouns, numerals may be predicative in equative, ascriptive and focus constructions, simply by being in the syntactic position of the verb. Such functional flexibility is asymmetrical and does not apply to derived verb stems which must be nominalised to achieve argument function.

La traducción de los textos bíblicos no es tarea fácil. En ocasiones, el significado de un lexema en su contexto no es claro y el traductor o exegeta no siempre dispone de los medios que le facilitan acercarse al sentido originario del término. Por ello el Método de análisis semántico proporciona una útil herramienta para los estudiosos del Nuevo Testamento, permitiéndoles determinar el significado de un lexema de forma científica. Un buen ejemplo lo constituye περιβεβλημένη τὸν ἥλιον (Ap 12,1), pues ha recibido diversas traducciones en las versiones de la Biblia (vestida de sol, envuelta en el sol, revestida de sol) y estas mismas se reflejan en el arte.
La aplicación del Método pone de manifiesto no solo que el lexema verbal περιβάλλω posee dos sememas o acepciones diferentes, sino también el contexo en el que aparecen, facilitando así al traductor la elección adecuada del significado de περιβάλλω en Ap 12,1.