Linguistic Turn

The main concern of the present thesis is ‘language’ in Heidegger. Beginning with a discussion of the place of the Heideggerian thought within the context of the history of philosophy, which at that time witnessed a shift which is called ‘linguistic turn’, the question ‘What is language?’ is scrutinized to show the dilemma which arises from the fact that this question itself is in language. After, from the Heideggerian perspective, the interrogation of the whatness of language is shown to be inadequate, requiring a reformulation of the question as ‘What is the essence of language?’ Under the light of this question, through an elaborate reading of Being and Time from Heidegger’s early period and On the Way to Language from his late period, it is demonstrated that the early Heidegger takes the issue of language on the basis of Dasein’s existential structure, whereas the later Heidegger elevates ‘language’ and takes language qua language, thereby putting ‘language’ itself at the position of the speaker and concludes that ‘language speaks’. The turning in the thought of Heidegger is further investigated and it is shown that this turning is not a change in his thought but a shift of emphasis. At the same time, it is also shown that Heidegger’s own performative language cannot be separated from his 'conception' of 'language’, which yields the conclusion that the shift of focus in Heidegger’s thought is a making of another way to language, and by this very reason, is a ‘turn’ in his thought.

[EN] This article argues that Rorty's philosophy of mind is possible as a metaphilosophical project. It trespasses the limits of physicalism and yet opposes philosophical scholasticism. Rorty's physicalism is grounded on a metaphilosophical motivation and aims to show that physical descriptions protect against unjustified pretensions to a transcendentally engaged, considered to be objective, universally applicable knowing. while defending Rorty's eliminativism from criticism aimed at his presupposed scientism, the article discusses the possibility of "mind" as an empty concept. the article concludes that, in the context of Rorty's philosophy, the concept of mind should be considered as idealistic and naturalistic, not indicating any concrete content and therefore immune to materialistic criticism. However, despite the physical vocabulary aimed at expanding the problematics of mind, the full self-knowledge at which the scientific knowledge is aimed is unachieved. This leaves space for philosophical, theological and other descriptions of mind.

[LT] Šiame straipsnyje teigiama, kad Rorty sąmonės filosofija įmanoma kaip metafilosofinis projektas, pranoks-tantis fizikalizmo ribas ir oponuojantis filosofinei scholastikai. Įrodinėjama, kad Rorty fizikalizmą grindžia metafilosofinė motyvacija – siekis parodyti, kad fizikinės deskripcijos apsaugo nuo nepamatuotos preten-zijos į transcendentiškai angažuotą, neva objektyvų ir universaliai taikomą žinojimą. svarstoma " sąmonės " , kaip tuščios koncepcijos, galimybė, kartu ginant Rorty eliminatyvizmą nuo kritikos dėl neva esančio pasi-davimo scientizmui. Prieinama išvada, kad Rorty filosofijos kontekste sąmonės koncepcija laikytina idea-listų ir natūralistų konstrukcija, nenurodančia jokio konkretaus turinio, todėl neatlaikančia materialistų kritikos. Vis dėlto net ir pasitelkus fizikinį žodyną sąmonės problematikai išskleisti, ši išsklaida nesuteikia visiško savęs pažinimo, į kurį galėtų pretenduoti mokslinis žinojimas – tam padeda filosofinės, teologinės ir kitokios deskripcijos.

A partir da primeira década do século XX, começa a se formar na universidade de Viena um grupo constituído por diferentes pesquisadores das ciências naturais e humanas, cujo interesse comum era a difusão de uma nova perspectiva filosófica orientada pelos ideais do conhecimento científico. Esse grupo, que ficou conhecido como Círculo de Viena, desenvolveu a filosofia do Positivismo Lógico, também chamada de Neopositivismo. À primeira vista, o termo "Neopositivismo" parece sugerir uma espécie de apropriação e retomada do pensamento positivista do século XIX, encaminhado pelo filósofo e sociólogo Augusto Comte. Entretanto, segundo Dutra (2005, p. 53), "embora haja semelhanças entre o positivismo de Comte e aquele professado pelos autores do Círculo de Viena […] a maior influência sobre estes últimos não veio da filosofia comteana, mas do pensamento de Ernst Mach, Ludwig Wittgenstein e Bertrand Russell." Juntamente com Frege, estes dois últimos autores são os protagonistas do que se convencionou chamar de o Giro linguístico, no pensamento filosófico do século XX.

This paper proposes to define metaphor as a visual-material structure, the sphere of which is ontological rather than cognitive or conceptual. It argues that the essence of metaphor, as either an aesthetic or a communicative unit or both, resides in the qualitative dimension and appearance, or even materiality, of the metaphorical medium and its form. The paper thus offers a new theory of metaphor, focusing on the medium of metaphor, which composes and transfigures or reconstructs its target anew: a composition that is prior to understanding or conceptualizing the target. In doing so, the paper presents a formalist ontology of metaphors, established via an externalist account of metaphors, as opposed to the prevailing cognitivist-conceptualist account which I characterize as internalist. The various kinds of metaphor – linguistic, poetic, visual or material – are based on their external structure, rather than an internal-conceptual mechanism of understanding, as assumed by a significant segment of the literature. Visual metaphor, therefore, is the paradigmatic kind of metaphor, the analysis of which can be generalized to other kinds of metaphor.
Furthermore, the paper tries to overcome the current discrepancy between the formalist character of the metaphorical medium and the dominance of cognitivist and conceptualist theories of metaphor. Challenging these, I claim that if the identity of metaphor is indeed based on its composition, then it is actually based on its aesthetic qualities. That is to say, not only are there autonomous visual or material metaphors, that are not based on linguistic or conceptual ones, but linguistic and conceptual metaphors are based on visuality: they are enabled by the structural possibilities offered by visual media.
Keywords: conceptualism, formalism, ontology, visual metaphor, externalism, internalism, cognitivism, cognition, visual turn, linguistic turn, aesthetics, embodied cognition, Danto, Johnson, Lakoff, metaphor

A validade do conhecimento histórico havia sido questionada pelas Ciências Sociais nascentes durante a primeira metade do século XX. Com as contribuições de historiadores membros dos Annales, como Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch e Fernand Braudel, foi possível a sobrevivência da História-disciplina através do diálogo com as Ciências Sociais e a adoção de metodologias e conceitos delas oriundos, além do desenvolvimento de uma nova concepção de História e de Tempo Histórico. Contudo, durante a segunda metade do século XX, o pensamento ocidental viu abalado vários de seus paradigmas pelo chamado giro inguístico, que exerceria uma duradoura influência não apenas na História, mas em todo o conjunto das Ciências Humanas. Mas o giro linguístico não foi o último desafio imposto à História e ao fazer
historiográfico durante a segunda metade do século XX. Com o advento do giro cultural, e a mudança do regime de historicidade do mundo pós-1989, os historiadores são forçados, uma vez mais, a refletirem seriamente sobre a sua prática.

In this paper I will delineate the psychological operations and faculties required for linguistic apprehension within a Thomistic psychology. This will require first identifying the proper object of linguistic apprehension, which will then allow me to specify the distinct operations and faculties necessary for linguistic apprehension. I will argue that the semantic value of any linguistic term is a type of incidental sensible and that its cognitive apprehension is a type of incidental sensation. Hence, the faculties necessary for the apprehension of any linguistic term’s semantic value will be the cogitative power and the intellect. The cogitative power, because it is the faculty of particular intentions, and the intellect, because it is the faculty of universal intentions.

This chapter identifies a typically late antique phenomenon: the emergence of a pervasive “poetics of silence”, involving a metaliterary problematization of language and representation. This phenomenon, reminiscent of the postmodern “linguistic turn”, is not restricted to the field of literature, but can be defined as omnipresent in late antique culture, underlying Augustine’s semiotics, Evagrius Ponticus’ hesychasm, Gregory of Nyssa’s apophatic theology or Pseudo-Dionysius’ negative mysticism. The chapter focuses on the different ways in which this problem (embodied in the metaphor of silence) is tackled by several authors: Sidonius Apollinaris, Fulgentius, Augustine of Hippo, Ausonius, Rutilus Namatianus and the anonymous writer of the Peruigilium Veneris. At times, silence is depicted as the haven of tranquillity which enables literary creation; at other times, it is a threat of dissolution hovering over the fragility of the poet’s work; most often, it is the deep, ultimately unknowable reality beyond the murmuring of words. Despite this variety, there is something common to all these authors: their problematizing approach to human language and their inner distrust of the classical idea of representation, teetering on the brink of collapse amidst the crisis of certainties that shook the very foundations of late antique society.

Öz: Bu makale, Hayden White’ın tarih anlatısı konusunda Metahistory kitabı ve yarım yüzyılı aşan kariyeri boyunca yayınladığı makalelerde dile getirdiği düşünce ve gözlemleri ele almaktadır. White, “dilsel dönüş”ten hareketle anlatının salt tarihçinin bulgularını aktarmakta kullandığı bir araç olmakla kalmayıp beraberinde kendi içeriğini de getirdiğini ortaya koyan, böylece onu sorunsallaştıran ilk tarihçi olmuştur. Mevcut çalışma, onun tarih anlatısı ve sorunları hakkındaki irdelemelerini dört bölümde incelemektedir. İlk bölümde, White’ın başı sonu bellisiz bir takvimden vakayinameye ve oradan olay örgüsüne sahip tam bir tarih anlatısına uzanan değişik tarihyazımı türlerini nasıl karşılaştırdığını inceleyeceğiz. İkinci bölümde, White’ın tarih anlatısının olay örgüsünün ötesine geçen kurgusal yanlarına, yani temelindeki kavramsal mecazi çerçeveye, argüman kipine ve bunların ideolojik imalarına nasıl ışık tuttuğunu göreceğiz. Bunu izleyen bölümde, kurgunun tarih anlatısının harcındaki bu önemli yerini kabul etmenin; tarihin gerçeklikle ilişkisi, sağladığı bilgilerin doğası ve kurgu edebiyatla benzerlik ve farkları gibi önemli konular bakımından doğurduğu sonuçlar hakkında White’ın gözlemlerini ele alacağız. Dördüncü bölümde ise White’ın geleneksel haliyle tarih anlatısına yönelik eleştirileri üzerinde duracağız. Tarihsel olayları anlatılaştırmanın, gerçekliğe sahici olmayan bir tutarlılık, bütünlük ve ahenk katarak onu estetize etme, “ehlileştirme” sonucunu getirdiği ve bu bakımdan özellikle modern çağın Dünya Savaşları ve Yahudi Soykırımı gibi dehşet verici, anlamlandırılması güç olayları karşısında hem yetersiz hem de ahlaken sakıncalı kaldığı konusunda White’ın tespitlerine ve buna karşı sunduğu çözüme eğileceğiz. Sonsöz kısmında ise White’ın bizzat ele almadığı, ancak yaklaşımının verimli bir şekilde uygulanabileceği diğer bazı konulara işaret edeceğiz.   

Anahtar Kelimeler: Hayden White, Tarih, Tarihyazımı, Anlatı, Dilsel Dönüş

Hayden White and the Question of Historical Narrative

Abstract:  This article aims to survey Hayden White’s thoughts on the nature and uses of historical narrative. White has been the first historian to draw upon the linguistic turn to problematize historical narrative, emphasizing that it is not only an empty form used to communicate the results of research and analysis, but something that contributes its own content as well. The study is divided into four sections. In the first section, it dwells on White’s comparative analysis of different forms of historiography extending from the annals to a chronicle and thence to a fully emplotted narrative. In the next section, it focuses on White’s revelation of other fictive components of historical narrative, including the conceptual and figurative framework underlying it. In the third section, the study discusses White’s comments on the implications of this fictive aspect of historical narrative for such issues as the links of history with past reality, the nature of the knowledge it produces, and its similarities with and differences from literary fiction. In the fourth section, it examines White’s criticisms against traditional historical narrative. In particular, it focuses on his observation that narrativizing historical events leads to the aestheticization and domestication of past reality by providing it with a false coherence, integrity and completeness, and therefore proves inadequate and morally objectionable when faced with modernist events like the Holocaust. In the epilogue, the study suggests some other topics which, although not discussed by White himself, could be subjected to his line of analysis with fruitful results.

Keywords: Hayden White, History, Historiography, Linguistic Turn

Stimulated by T. P. Uschanov’s paper ‘The strange death of ordinary language philosophy’, I try to reach a balanced assessment of Gellner’s notorious book and also to decide where Gellner stands on the notion of philosophical nonsense.  Some of the things he says suggest that he rejects the notion but he neither clearly formulates what it would have to be nor gives much in the way of argument that there could be no such thing.  One gets the impression that when philosophers he does not like – Wittgenstein and Oxford ordinary language philosophers – use it, it is unacceptable but not necessarily when philosophers to whom he is less hostile – Russell and the logical positivists – do so.

Com vistas a contribuir para uma maior familiaridade com a linhagem anglófona da teoria da história, este artigo oferece uma exegese do exame narrativista realizado no pensamento historiográfico anglo-americano a partir de meados do século XX, por meio de obras que apresentaram alguns dos questionamentos seminais da filosofia analítica relacionados ao significado dos enunciados e aos esquemas conceituais e lógicos da história. Não se trata, contudo, de propor uma arqueologia da filosofia analítica da história nem de tentar percorrer o itinerário do debate sobre a filosofia da linguagem desde o Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus de Wittgenstein. Busca-se, mais precisamente, oferecer uma apresentação breve de alguns debates teóricos que antecederam o que se convencionou denominar linguistic turn, enumerando as linhas gerais de seus autores e argumentos determinantes, com o objetivo de ajudar a tornar a tradição anglófona do pensamento teórico acerca da história mais familiarizada no Brasil. Para isso, descreve-se o contexto e a distinção da teoria da história de linhagem anglófona e da teoria da história da linhagem francófona, para, em seguida, explicar como a crítica à tese de Carl Gustav Hempel ajudou a promover reflexões que redundaram nas teses narrativistas que precederam as obras de Louis Mink e de Hayden White. Demonstra-se, assim, a existência de um interesse progressivo de filósofos analíticos pela teoria da história e, como resultado da consolidação de tal interesse, o estabelecimento de um contexto propício ao florescimento das teses narrativistas.

This paper argues that the logic of the Xici, contra scholars who ascribe to it a copy-theory of meaning, is best described through “philosophy’s linguistic turn,” specifically Ernst Cassirer’s philosophy of the symbolic forms. Cassirer’s concept of the symbol as a pluralistic, constitutive and functional yet concrete and observable form, is comparable to the symbolic system of the Xici: the xiang (象), gua (卦), yao (爻), and yi (易). Their similarity is due to a shared philosophical orientation: humanism. The characteristics of the Xici: the part-whole (structuralist) relationship typical of correlative cosmology, the simultaneously sensuous and conceptual nature of its symbols, the stress on order as opposed to unity, and the importance of symbols per se, are for Cassirer, characteristics which were only possible in European intellectual history after a substance ontology is replaced by a functional one. For Cassirer, a functional ontology is closely associated with a humanism which celebrates creations (i.e. language) of the human mind in determining reality. This humanism is coherent with the intellectual context – Confucian humanism – contemporary with the period of the Xici’s composition. It would thus be inconsistent to concede this humanism to the Xici without also conceding that it’s understanding of the of the symbols was akin to that of the linguistic turn. Finally, even regardless of this comparative framework, the Xici runs into paradox if we read it through a copy-theory of meaning, paradoxes which immediately dissolve if we read it through the paradigm of the linguistic turn.

Penultimate draft, forthcoming in The Edinburgh Critical History of Christian Theology, Ed. Daniel Whistler. Edinburgh University Press, expected 2017-8.

Theologies of the nineteenth century tend to return to the thought of Johann Georg Hamann (1730-88) whether overtly or in terms of their defining predicaments. This essay traces those reverberations, outlining Hamann’s position and theological responses to it. Hamann was a self-proclaimed religious enthusiast (or Schwärmer), steeped in the skepticism of Hume and able to issue the earliest criticism of Kantian Vernunft, with its ostensible accommodation to faith. The range of Hamann’s influence is often forgotten, though it is remarkable: Kierkegaard hailed Hamann as his true forebear; Schleiermacher took his pivotal stance on language from Hamann via Herder; and later, Barth saw himself as standing with Hamann against modernity’s internment of theology. This essay shows why Hamann exerts a hold on nineteenth century liberal theology, as well as on its mutinous children. It situates Hamann’s arguments for the limitedness of human knowledge, clarifying how they relate to Hamann’s theory of language. It details how, for Hamann, language mediates the experience of sensuous nature, the recognition of historical cogency, and indeed, rational endeavoring altogether. The essay then describes how, particularly in the early nineteenth century, these arguments play out in the notion of divine condescension and the practice of theological dialectics, as well as in debates about the relationship between faith and reason and about the value of scriptural hermeneutics. Having encountered the challenge Hamann issues, we can appreciate where nineteenth century theories convene around the newly galvanized study of language, and where they attempt either to circumvent or affirm Hamannian paradoxes about our enclosure in it.

"Rational sufficiency has been a root-concept in philosophy ever since the Greeks. Kant’s Copernican Turn is largely motivated by the wish to save this concept after Berkeley’s reduction of its classic formulation (representationalism). This, as post-Kantians were quick to point out, is a highly problematic move. It’s only with Kierkegaard though that an attempt is made to subject the Kantian formulation to an *internal* critique. His own thinking about human communication is meant to be a successor-notion to Kant’s transcendental reason. This is the real background of Wittgenstein’s Tractatus and the linguistic turn.  By recasting the concept in a rigorously semantic form, he shows its incoherence and so its inapplicability to philosophy as a whole. This reduction cuts much deeper than most Wittgensteinians think.
"

[for special issue, "Rethinking Philology: Twenty-Five Years after The New Philology"] In North American academia, the word ‘philology’ pulls in two directions—toward a broad, idealist sense corresponding to the roots philia and logos and toward a narrower conception of ‘mere’ philology, a historicist subdiscipline centered on etymology and textual editing. This essay examines the role of ‘philology’ before, during, and beyond the period known as the ‘linguistic turn,’ with special focus on The New Philology. Against the many invocations of ‘philology’ pitting the lofty ideal against fallen disciplinary practice, I argue for the institutional reelaboration of philological study in the present.

Through a key passage (Xici 2.2) from the Book of Changes, this paper shows that Ernst Cassirer’s philosophy of symbolic forms shares similarities with the canonical account of symbolic formation in the Chinese tradition: the genesis of xiang (象), often translated as image or symbol. Xiang became identified with the origins of culture/civilisation itself. In both cases, the world is understood as primordially (phenomenologically) meaningful; the expressiveness of the world requires a human subject to consummate it in a symbol, whilst the symbol in turn gives us access to higher orders of meaning. It is the self-conscious creation of the symbol that then allows for the higher forms of culture. For both the Xici and Cassirer, symbols and the symbolic consciousness that comes with it is the pre-condition for the freedom, ethics and the cultivation of agency. As for both the Xici and Cassirer, it is human agency that creates these symbols, it will be argued that the Xici is making a Cassirerian argument about the (ethical) relationship between human agency, symbols and ethics/freedom.

The centrality of translation in the practice of historical research is magnified in contexts where language serves as an impediment to accessing knowledge, such as in the case of
the Philippines. In this paper, I shall analyze missionary histories and grammars of Tagalog, the basis of the modern-day national language of the Philippines called Filipino, and examine how the concept of “Asia” is imagined as an exotic Other in the textualization of its people. In proposing a translational reading of missionary texts, I shall provide examples of how colonial writing was instrumentalized to inscribe the Other within the history of Christian salvation,
and how historical and linguistic texts constructed a colonial vision of the Philippines and Asia through translation.

Is poetry written by women truly informal while also lacking in depth of historical analysis, as stated by Mengaldo in his well-known introduction to Poeti Italiani del Novecento? Many Italian women poets have been demonstrating the unreliability of this critical standpoint since the second half of the 20th century. Antonella Anedda can be easily be part of this particular lineage with a particular regard to her last published poetic collection, Historiae (2018). In her last book, Anedda manages to effectively conjugate the meta-historical nature of female writing with her role of witness within History. Indeed, the narration of private traumas gets amplified and tends to be overlapped with historical and collective wounds; thanks to this mechanism, poetry is also in charge of revealing its inner movement towards sublimation. This essay will analyse the collocation of the poetic Subject within the book of poetry, Historiae, by connecting it also to the extra-individual dimension of History. Within this critical frame, the label of "historical lyricism" will be proposed as the most suitable category for the analysis of this entangled poetic phenomenology.

La poesia scritta da donne è veramente votata all’informale e contemporanemante priva di qualsiasi profondità d’analisi storica, come dice Menagaldo nella sua celebre introduzione a Poeti Italiani del Novecento? Molti poeti italiani del hanno sconfessato questo avamposto critico a partire dalla seconda metà del Novecento. Antonella Anedda può essere facilmente accostata a questa tendenza, particolarmente per quanto riguarda la sua ultima raccolta pubblicata, Historiae (2018). In quest’ultimo libro, Anedda riesce con efficacia a coniugare la natura meta-storica della voce femminile con la sua volontà di essere testimone all’interno della Storia. Infatti, la narrazione di traumi privati tende ad essere amplificata fino ad essere sovrapposta a ferite storiche collettive; grazie a questo meccanismo, la poesia è destinata a rivelare il proprio movimento sublimatorio interno. Questo saggio si propone di analizare la collocazione del Soggetto all’interno del libro di poesia, Historiae, al fine di connetterlo poi alla dimensione sopra-individuale della Storia. All’intenro di questa cornice teorica, sarà introdotta la formula di “lirismo storico” come la categoria critica più adatta al fine di analizzare una così complessa fenomenologia poetica.

https://www.lettereaperte.net/ausgaben/ausgabe-62019/una-zona-di-tempo-schiuma-delle-ere-lirica-e-storiografia-in-historiae-di-antonella-anedda

RESUMO:
Este trabalho visa analisar o modo de representação da história no romance A náusea,publicado em 1938 por Jean-Paul Sartre. A partir de uma análise teórica, a narrativa histórica é contrastada com outros tipos de narrativas no que diz respeito à experiência passada. Dessa forma, o maior fio condutor do trabalho foi o conceito de temporalidade, empregado para perceber suas diferentes articulações ao longo do livro, que possui o formato de um diário íntimo. O livro conta a história do personagem Antoine Roquentin, um historiador francês que, não se reconhecendo na narrativa historiográfica, desiste de escrever seu livro de história. O trabalho, portanto, destina-se a um questionamento sobre os motivos da desistência historiográfica do personagem, analisando sua construção narrativa. Assim, no primeiro capítulo foi abordada uma relação entre a escrita do diário e a subjetividade do personagem. O segundo capítulo explora mais especificamente o conceito de temporalidade, fazendo uma oposição entre dois tempos: o tempo da náusea e o tempo da aventura. O tempo da náusea, assim, torna-se um problema, pois seus reflexos fazem com que a história não articule o
tempo a partir de uma unidade. O terceiro capítulo insere o livro num contexto histórico de crise das ciências, fazendo uma reflexão sobre a estética do discurso histórico.
Palavras-chave: A náusea. Jean-Paul Sartre. Temporalidade. Narrativa. Diário. Subjetividade histórica. Pessimismo historiográfico. Existencialismo. 1938.

ABSTRACT:
This paper views to analise how history is represented in the novel "Nausea", published in 1938 by Jean-Paul Sartre. From a theoretical analysis, the historical narrative is contrasted with other types of narratives concerning past experiences. Thus, the biggest conducting wire was the concept of temporality, utilized to realise its different articulations troughout the book, which possesses the format of an intimate diary. The book tells the story of the character Antoine Roquentin, a french historian that, not recognising himself on the historiographic narrative, gives up writing his history book. This work, therefore, aims to question the reasons of the historiographic withdrawal of the character, analising its narrative construction. Thus, in the first chapter a correlation between the diary writing and the subjectivity of the character was aborded. The second chapter explorers more specifically the concept of temporality, making an oposition between two times: the time of nausea and the time of the adventure. The time of the nausea, thus, becomes a problem, because its reflexes make it so that the history doesn't articulate time through a unity. The third chapter inserts the
book in a historical context of scientifical crisis, making a reflexion over the aesthetic of the historical discourse.
Key-words: Nausea. Jean-Paul Sartre. Temporality. Narrative. Diary. Historical subjectivity. Historiographic pessimism. Existentialism. 1938.

This essay reassesses the scholarly controversies, implications, and prospects of linguistic and discourse analysis that arose in the practice of modern European history by American and German scholars in the 1980s and 1990s. It contends that in their quest for ever-novel approaches and abandoning the so-called “linguistic turn,” twenty-first century historians of modern Europe have left key potentials for a rethinking of their field insufficiently explored. The essay proposes multi-layered rereadings of theorizations of language and discourses in sustained conversations and combinations with more recent spatial and transnational approaches. It begins to demonstrate how these rereadings can increase our comprehension and insights of key areas of study, especially in the often still theory-adverse practices of historians of the Holocaust.

In this paper I will try to show that Ludwig Wittgenstein and Martin Heidegger
defended conception of language as a universal medium in both phases of their work. Both
philosophers believe that we are „prisoners“ of the language that we speak, so that we can
not step outside of it and describe the semantic relationships of language and the world from
metalinguistic point of view. For both thinkers the basic problem is of methodological
nature: for, if we can not speak about the relationships between language and the world,
then how can we say that we can not speak about the relationships between language and
the world? I will argue: a) that the universalism of early Wittgenstein and late Heidegger is
transcendentally motivated, and that they both deal with the problem of inexperessibility of
semantics by invoking the language of poetry as a way to express a universalist point of
view, and b) that the universalism of late Wittgenstein and early Heidegger is pragmatically
motivated, and that the difference between two philosophers is that early Heidegger accepts,
while late Wittgenstein rejects semantic paradox of universalism. For early Heidegger
inexpressibility of semantics is evidence that there is something that eludes the ordinary
language and that that something has to be grasped by use of special method, for late
Wittgenstein it is the evidence that there is nothing that can not be expressed in ordinary
language and that the problem of inexpressibility of semantics is a pseudo-problem

Ce texte entreprend de réfléchir au « tournant pratique » analysant le champ de l'international par les pratiques à partir du texte de Vincent Pouliot. Nous saisissons l'occasion de ce forum pour examiner son plaidoyer pour un tournant pratique en ri (qu'il nomme la logique du praticable), à la lumière de la politique disciplinaire. Nous soutenons que son texte con-stitue une intervention politique au sein du champ des ri pour faire accepter par le mainstream un tournant pratique. Nous procédons en trois temps : 1) un arrêt par le tournant linguistique, contre lequel se positionne le tour-nant pratique, en invoquant la division constructivisme-poststructuralisme ; 2) l'exploration du plaidoyer de Pouliot, ainsi que ses intentions, ses limites et l'épistémologie sobjectiviste qui sous-tend sa méthodologie interprétative ; et 3) une critique du sobjectivisme comme ne permettant pas à la discipline d'intégrer la richesse du détail de l'enquête ethnographique et constituant du coup un acte politique en faveur d'une vision scientiste de la discipline. mot-clés : tournant pratique, tournant ethnographique, tournant linguistique, sobjectivisme, politique disciplinaire AbstRAct : This article is a reflection on the "practice turn" in the study of world politics based on the article by Vincent Pouliot. We take advantage of this forum to examine his plea for a practice turn in ir (which he dubs the "logic of practicality") in light of disciplinary politics. We argue that his article constitutes a political intervention in the ir field with a view to making the idea of a practice turn acceptable to the mainstream. Our text is divided into three parts : 1) A brief look at the linguistic turn-to which the practice turn is presented as a counterpoint-with a reference to the constructiv-ism-poststructuralism divide ; 2) an exploration of Pouliot's argument, as well as his intentions, limits, and the sobjective epistemology underpinning his interpretive methodology ; and 3) a critique of sobjectivism as a barrier preventing the discipline from incorporating the richness of detail found in *

In setting the scene for this seminar, Franson Manjali noted the enormous scholarly interest manifested in matters linguistic in the century just past, but suggests that now, these linguistic orientations are on the wane, and that other concerns and other programs, with their own self-contained agendas, have come to take their place. Cognitive science, cultural studies, and ethical-philosophical approaches have, seemingly, begun to pursue their own separate developments, and as a result, scientific disciplinary concerns and critical intellectual pursuits are now in an uneasy relationship of coexistence and mutual contestation with each other. But here, a little like Latour (1993), in his claim that 'we have never been modern', I want to claim that, rather than moving beyond the linguistic turn, we have yet to take it. We have not yet taken it because — partly due to Frege's and de Saussure's mechanistic and structuralist account of language, as an abstract, inner, mental representation which we as self-contained, intellectual beings can put to willful use in our own individual actions — we have never grasped its true nature.

В статье осмысляется проблема лингвистического поворота в истории и его мето-дологические следствия в анализе исторических знаний. Сопоставлены методологиче-ские подходы к литературному и историческому нарративу, взаимодействие истори-ческого и лингвистического методов анализа. Лингвистическая интерпретация с опорой на функционально и когнитивно ориентированные принципы рассматривает-ся как дополнительный инструмент, не подменяющий, но развивающий специальные методы историографии, позволяющие квалифицировать текст как историческое знание либо как субъективно-оценочное, квазинаучное высказывание, в котором цели историка подменяются иными целями. Ключевые слова: историческое знание, текст, лингвистический поворот, историче-ский нарратив.

During the 20th century, the term “naturalistic” within the language’s sciences corresponded with a physicalist tendency, directing the so-called “linguistic turn” to a clearly synchronic, analytic-deductive and logical-formal paradigma. In the first period of cognitive science this tendency took the form of a theoretical approach to language in which the dualism between the mechanical-morphological components and the psychic ones fully arose. Within the computational hypotheses this theoretical solution has proved to fit completely to the distinction between hardware and software. As is well-known, these models revealed even the simplest semantic uses of language as unsuitable to explain. One of the most negative aspects of this real epistemological defeat of the most ambitious linguistic philosophy of the 20th century is that it entailed the progressive theoretical decrease of human language role within the new dominant paradigm of cognitive science. In this paper we support a different theoretical position that can place language contribution at the core of the scientific debate, while remaining within the boundaries of cognitive science’s epistemology. This can be possible if we use a different naturalistic philosophy of language, based entirely on evolutionary-developmental biology and on the fundamental concept of morphological constraints, rather than centered on physicalist stances. Moreover, we believe that our position can open to cognitive science further possibilities of application that are currently clouded by the neuroscience’s primacy and the totalizing approach of experimental methodologies.

In a context of generalized resurgence of late antique studies (after centuries of neglect, lack of understanding, and contempt), the unexpected topicality of this period’s culture has begun to emerge. In the last decades, a few pioneering studies have begun to analyze and vindicate late antique literature from the novel perspective of postmodern theory, thus highlighting a series of intriguing concomitances and shared concerns with our own time and age. This paper raises for the first time the opposite question: was postmodern theory significantly influenced by late antique literature (taken as a whole)? To what extent was the creative revisitation of certain late antique authors a key element in the forging of postmodernism? Which aspects of late antique culture might have inspired the founders of contemporary theory in their crusade against the fallacies of modernity?

El objetivo del trabajo es hacer compatibles el giro lingüístico y la reciente etología cognitiva. Para ello, ofrezco primero una reconstrucción de dos variedades del giro lingüístico, la de Apel y Dummett, según las cuales el pensamiento depende del lenguaje. Expongo luego algunos fenómenos de la etología cognitiva que suponen un cuestionamiento de esa dependencia. Analizo entonces algunas tesis más flexibles ofrecidas en el marco del giro lingüístico y señalo sus insuficiencias, en tanto siguen requiriendo la presencia de un trasfondo lingüístico actual. Intento luego delinear un principio de expresabilidad que logre la compatibilidad buscada, y me aproximo finalmente al problema pendiente del carácter público del significado.

Abstract
The paper looks for a compatibility between the Linguistic Turn and the Cognitive Ethology. With this aim, I present two varieties of the Linguistic Turn: Apel´s and Dummett´s, both of which put forward the thesis that thought depends on language. Then, I offer two examples that put this dependence into question. Correspondingly, I analyze more flexible positions within this philosophical turn, but I argue that such positions are not sustainable since they require a language background for thought. I delineate then a Principle of Expressibility that would attain the abovementioned compatibility, and make some final remarks about the public character of meaning.

Riproporre oggi il problema dell'attualità del gesto fenomenologico, o, per riprendere la domanda di Croce a proposito di Hegel, di "ciò che è vivo e di ciò che è morto" nella fenomenologia, presuppone di collocare quest'ultima nel contesto della filosofia nel suo complesso, e quindi di confrontarla con altre correnti e altri metodi. Questo è il pro-getto del libro di Claude Romano, unico nel suo genere. La tesi è che la fenomenologia non può essere compresa solo come un ri-torno all'esperienza, o una filosofia descrit-tiva; ciò che è in gioco in essa è la questione dei rapporti tra linguaggio ed esperienza, la messa in luce di strutture prelinguistiche im-manenti all'esperienza stessa e di significati "muti" che la attraversano. In poche parole, la riproposizione del problema della ragione. La fenomenologia ha infatti opposto a una razionalità striminzita (quella della logica e della matematica) quel che Husserl chiama-va una razionalità "di gran cuore", capace di accogliere in sé il suo altro, cioè la sensibili-tà. Quello che la fenomenologia ha elabora-to prevalentemente è una nuova immagine della ragione. In questo lavoro di ridefinizione della feno-menologia e dei suoi compiti, tramite un dia-logo sostenuto tra filosofia analitica e conti-nentale, Romano ci propone una traversata dell'intero pensiero contemporaneo.



"Lo scopo di questo libro è quello di elaborare i problemi che stanno alla base della fenomenologia storica, o meglio, di elevare la fenomenologia stessa al rango di un problema. Se, in filosofia, la precisione delle domande ha la meglio sulla certezza delle risposte, e se dietro ogni affermazione si nasconde una domanda che spesso bisogna scoprire, elevare la fenomenologia al rango di problema non è un'impresa così facile come la coscienza comune potrebbe credere. In ogni momento, in ogni tappa, abbiamo cercato non soltanto di ricostruire quel che la fenomenologia è stata, ma ci siamo anche domandati quel che dovrebbe essere".

For many historians the ‚linguistic turn’ has been quite frightening. Should all history now concentrate only on ‘discourse’? And should it from now on just be ‘literature’? In this book I advocate the anti-thesis. Since the paradigm shift from traditional political history to social and cultural history the issue of language - in the history of society as well as in the history of science - has received a new virulence. The concept of ‘discourse’, at least in Foucault’s coinage, has acted as a ‘door opener’. Language is more than just a medium of communication, it shapes all thinking, all mentalities, ideologies and discursive formations. Therefore the analysis of language and discourse doesn’t compete with social history, but opens up important new dimensions. Or as an American historian has said: “The facts have not dissolved into discourse, but they now look different.” (Robert Darnton)

This course offers an introduction to history as an academic discipline. It is especially geared towards students of the MA in Global History who come from a background in area studies or hold a first degree from any field other than history. The course provides the basic tools for non-historians to understand the state of the field before the recent surge in “global history.” Most of the course will be structured chronologically, providing a survey of the history of historiography that focuses chiefly on the twentieth century. We will grant particular attention to the rise of social history in the 1960s and the subsequent “cultural turn,” which both swept through much of Europe and the U.S. At the same time, the course familiarizes students with some of history’s cornerstone heuristic instruments. We will thus deal with the distinction between primary and secondary sources, the framing of history-specific research questions, and the writing of papers in history.

While many of Elizabeth Anscombe’s philosophical views are well-known (e.g. her views on practical knowledge or consequentialism), little has been written on her philosophical method, i.e., on her way of doing philosophy. This is unfortunate, for two reasons : First, the failure to understand Anscombe’s method is a major stumbling block for many of her readers. Second, and more importantly, we can still learn a lot from Anscombe’s way of doing philosophy : Her view differs considerably from current alternatives in metaphilosophy. Here we want to begin to fill this lacuna.

This article revisits Joseph Stalin’s infamous 1950 critique of Nikolai Marr’s controversial linguistic theory as a “linguistic turn,” to borrow a modern concept. The authors argue that this was literally a shift in the language describing social diversity, rather than a purely ideological campaign as earlier studies suggested. Stalin explicitly insisted on the academic nature of his intervention, which was quite banal in terms of its theoretical input, reproducing standard theses of classic linguistic theory from prerevolutionary textbooks. One aspect, however, was both theoretical and original: the elaborate attack on the concept of “crossing” (skreshchenie) of languages as the driving force of linguistic processes, the central and most stable element of the evolving theory of Nikolai Marr and his disciples.
By reviewing the intellectual context of the forming of Marr’s theory during the first two decades of the twentieth century (including cases of physical anthropology, archaeology, and nonclassical linguistics), the article claims that Nikolai Marr’s scholarly pursuits were but a specific case of rethinking and constructing the language of hybridity. Modern social sciences in Russia have produced a distinct metalanguage to describe and analyze the complex diversity of imperial situation. “Hybridity” was the central trope of this metalanguage, or rather its equivalents at the time – “mixing” (smeshenie) and “crossing” (skreshchenie) – insofar as “hybridity” had not yet entered the Russian vocabulary. It is in this sense that “hybridity” is discussed in this article: as a language of self-description in the imperial situation (category of practice) and as an element of the analytical language of the project of modern imperial social sciences, rather than a direct importation of the concept of hybridity from contemporary postcolonial scholarship (as used by Homi Bhabha and others).
The emergence of scholarly models that explicitly used the trope of hybridity and perceived hybridity as a foundation of the norm (rather than a marginal condition of deviation from pure forms) is characterized here as the late imperial epistemological revolution. This epistemological revolution became possible and had potential in the context of the imperial situation and in the ideologically pluralistic regime of the late empire. It was already exhausted by the late 1920s, having received support from neither the hegemonic Soviet discourse nor from the subaltern Eurasianist or Soviet national and anticolonial projects. Methodological constructivism and hybridity as a whole became obsolete as survivals of the unstable and limited pluralism of the New Economic Policy era. Their final marginalization in the USSR was just a question of time, given the consolidation of the Stalinist regime throughout the 1930s and the stake on the Russian nation as the official Staatsvolk. The upheaval of World War II delayed the official correction of the metalanguage of social hybridity based on the controversial Marrist linguistic theory of “crossing,” until Stalin’s “linguistic turn” of 1950 formally established the foundations of the literally “counterrevolutionary” episteme of “simple things” and the project of the ideological state based on that episteme.

Postmodernist critiques are important because they provided a much-needed critical distance from the positivist paradigms that characterized much research
in the social and human sciences in the first part of the 20th century. This entry explains the emergence of postmodernist critiques through the notions of reflexivity and representation and shows how they contributed, albeit somewhat indirectly,
to the development of research and practice in fields associated with intercultural communication.

Many people will agree on the idea that entrepreneurship is one of the most important business concepts in recent days. In addition, it is said that we are experiencing the fourth industrial revolution (or " Industry 4.0). Information and communication technologies are one of the key elements of this period. Therefore, some information about these two components, " entrepreneurship " and " information and communication technologies " , are given and the possible and strong relationships between them are discussed in this study.