Open and Distance Learning

According to researches, motivation that initiates and sustains behaviour is one of the most significant components of learning in any environment. Accordingly, level of intrinsic motivation triggers and sustains the interest of the open and distance education students when it comes to learning on their own in e‐learning environments. Despite a comprehensive literature regarding the motivation of those learning in traditional learning environments, the number of studies addressing the motivation of open and distance education students in e‐learning environments is not sufficient. In this context, this study aims at determining the level of intrinsic motivation of open and distance education students. Thus, data were collected from 1,639 distance education students in 22 programmes, through Intrinsic Motivation in e‐Learning Questionnaire developed and validated to that end. Analyses carried out indicate that the level of intrinsic motivation of open and distance education students is high in e‐learning environments, but there is not a statistically significant difference by gender, programme structure (graduate/undergraduate), instruction type (distance–blended), and academic disciplines.

The Commonwealth Digital Education Leadership Training in Action (C-DELTA) programme provides a framework for fostering digital learning for lifelong learning by developing leaders who can influence others to use digital technology appropriately and effectively for learning. The Faculty of Education at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) implemented an action research project, with the aim of promoting the adoption of C-DELTA among the teachers and students of secondary schools in Sri Lanka. It comprised an intervention designed to facilitate the adoption of C-DELTA in secondary schools, and evaluation of its impact on the teaching- learning process. A group of 41 participant teachers representing schools from the nine Provinces of Sri Lanka coordinated the implementation of C-DELTA in their schools. A variety of data collected using concept maps, questionnaires, focus group interviews, implementation reports, and logs recorded in the C-DELTA platform were analysed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Findings revealed that while adoption of C-DELTA was a novel experience highly embraced by the participant teachers who were very motivated to implement it in their schools, various constraints have hindered its successful implementation. Despite facing challenges including inadequate ICT facilities, time constraints and limitation in English language competencies, 21 teachers who completed the project reflected that adoption of C-DELTA in the teaching-learning process has supported improving digital literacy among students and teachers. For instance, concepts such as ‘digital foot print’ and ‘digital identity’ were found to be most effective in enacting changes in thinking and digital behaviour among both students and teachers. Overall, the implementation of C-DELTA has enhanced participant teachers’ digital education leadership skills, and provided them with an innovative avenue to promote digital education in their schools.

Previous research has studied the various influences of different educa- tional video types and the contributions of educational videos to learning processes. This study aims to compare the cognitive loads, satisfaction levels, engagement, and academic achievements of open and distance learners depending on long-form, sin- gle-piece educational videos and modular presentation formats divided into small yet meaningful pieces. To this end, data were gathered from 214 learners using a trial with a post-test control group, with parametric tests and video analytics deter- mining that modular educational videos divided into 11 meaningful parts reduced distance learners’ cognitive loads and increased engagement in learning processes. Additionally, learners were more satisfied with learning from meaningfully parti- tioned videos and they displayed an average increase in academic achievement. The findings of this study provide important insight for open and distance learning insti- tutions that are producers and designers of educational videos and suggest that flex- ible and interactive videos segmented into smaller meaningful units be preferred.

This study aims to determine the opinions of academicians who teach scientific research methods courses in the field of social sciences on collecting data through online surveys, on the " voluntary basis " of academic research, and on their comparisons of voluntary participation in face-to-face and online-survey data collection methods. For this purpose, data were collected utilizing the semi-structured interview technique. In accordance with purposeful sampling, the preliminary condition for seeking participants is that the academicians to be interviewed will have taught a scientific research methods course for at least one semester at the undergraduate, graduate, or postgraduate level. The qualitative data has been subjected to content analysis with the help of the NVIVO package program. As a result of the research, field experts emphasize that although online data collection has such disadvantages as a low return rate and low external validity, advantages such as facilitating data processing, quicker data collecting from more participants, reduced data loss, increased voluntary participation, and the ability to conduct research on sensitive and confidential matters make it prominent. Field experts have made some important suggestions for collecting online data and increasing voluntary participation. Additionally, field experts also emphasize that voluntary participation enhances research validity and reliability. When examining field experts' opinions on data collected using online and face-to-face survey methods, almost all experts are determined to report that data collected online increases a research' s validity and reliability. Field experts explain the reason for this situation as being that participants are more free, flexible, and independent in online environments.

While causing unprecedented disruption worldwide, COVID-19 has also stimulated the mainstreaming
of digital technologies in the delivery of formal education. For most key stakeholders – organisations,
educators, and students – this has been a new and challenging experience and has been described in
policy terms as ‘emergency remote education’. For many students, however, it has either exacerbated
or marginalised their opportunity to access formal education. In probing this impact at a deeper level,
an international collaboration involving the authors during 2020-2021 focused on reviewing
contemporary practices and potentials of open education as a strategic and sustainable response. This
paper highlights practices, case studies, and emerging issues from 13 diverse countries, to be globally
representative, which include: Australia, Brazil, France, India, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Spain,
Sweden, South Korea, Taiwan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. This collection of countries was
selected based on researcher contexts and contributions. To date, findings indicate open education has
demonstrable benefits for distance learning. More broadly, open educational practices are positioned to
shape a ‘new normal’ that embraces ‘global citizenship’ while also being equitable and inclusive. Our
aspirations are that such practices will lead to better formal education promoting and ensuring human
rights, democracy, lifelong learning, safety, social justice, diversity, cultural sensitivity and inclusivity
through strategic and long-term support by all stakeholders in both modes of educational delivery and
access: face-to-face and distance learning.
Keywords: School education, Higher Education, Lifelong learning, Formal education, Distance learning,
Education at distance, Open Education, Impact, Global citizenship, COVID-19.

Since the emergence of ODL to date, paradigm shifts were observed which radically
impacted the way distance educators design and deliver learning. ODL has always
adopted a pragmatist approach to provide effective and efficient learning opportunities
by benefiting from developments in the field of education and technology. As a
response of these efforts, ODL was widely adopted by learners and then became part
of the mainstream education. In such a time when transformation become inevitable,
management, administration and leadership issues also adopted themselves according to the changes happening in ODL sphere.
A perfect strategy to adopt the changes happening is to map and identify changes
and act accordingly. In this regard, this book intends to fill in this gap by addressing
management, administration, and leadership issues in open and distance learning.
The chapters in this book addresses the topics as followings.
The book includes 12 chapters covering various aspects of administrative
leadership in open and distance learning programs.
Chapter 1, “Leadership: In a Time When Learners Take Ownership of their
Learning,” explores the topics of open online learning, learning spaces, personal
learning and learners’ orchestration of their own learning, leadership and the digital
transformation and quality related concerns raised by the global digital transformation.
Chapter 2, “Leadership in Open and Distance Learning Institutions Within the
Scope of 21st Century Skills,” discusses leadership in open and distance learning
institutions within the scope of 21st century skills. In this study, the importance of
having 21st century skills in order to maintain the functioning of open and distance
learning institutions in a healthy manner and the necessity of possessing leadership
are emphasized.
Chapter 3, “The Virtual CSU: A Leadership Model for Universities Transitioning
to Online, Open, and Distance Delivery,” focuses on the virtual CSU is a model
of distributed leadership and team-based consultancy and support which has been
implemented at Victoria University of Wellington over the last four years as part of
an overall plan transitioning to greater use of online, open and distance provision
of higher education.

Chapter 4, “Open and Distance Learning Administration: The Organizational
Models, Cultures, and Structure and the Barriers and Trends in ODL Administration,”
aims at providing a perspective regarding the concept of open and distance learning
administration. In this respect, it includes basic terms and definitions regarding
the topic, open and distance learning administration units and roles, management
functions in open and distance learning institutions, and barriers and trends related
to management in open and distance education.
Chapter 5, “Administrative Factors in Design and Delivery of Open and Distance
Learning Course Materials: Within the Scope of Universal Design for Instruction,”
argues that principles of the Universal Design for Instruction can be applied to open
and distance education systems as an approach. In the chapter, universal design
concepts and use of universal design in management processes of open and distance
education systems are discussed.
Chapter 6, “Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Open and Distance Learning,”
focuses on the necessity of quality assurance and accreditation processes in open
and distance learning institutions.
Chapter 7, “A Critical İnvestigation of Quality Assurance in Open Distance
E-Learning,” examines quality assurance in open and distance learning form a
critical point of view and proposes a reengineering of quality assurance within
alternative frameworks.
Chapter 8, “National Strategies for OER and MOOCs From 2010 to 2020:
Canada, Japan, South Korea, Turkey, UK, and USA,” investigates national strategies
on OER and MOOCs in Canada, Japan, South Korea, Turkey, UK, and the USA. In
the chapter, concerns and priorities of these countries are also addressed.
Chapter 9, “Integrating Motivational Strategies Into Massive Open Online
Courses (MOOCs): The Application and Administration of the Motivation Design
Model,” introduces Keller’s ARCS-V motivational design model and discuss it as a
potential remedy to motivational issues in MOOCs by administering and delivering
motivational strategies based on the model in MOOCs environments.
Chapter 10, “Reflections on Distance Higher Education in Africa: Challenges
and Opportunities,” discusses challenges and opportunities in the provision of
distance higher education in Africa and makes suggestions for providing quality
distance education.
Chapter 11, “Administrative-Related Evaluation for Distance Education
Institutions in Turkey,” evaluates distance education institutions in Turkey in terms
of administrative aspects, which aims to determine the existing distance learning
programs and compulsory joint courses being provided in distance mode, to identify
varying titles given to the institutions or units which provide compulsory joint courses
or programs in higher education, to determine the LMSs used to provide distance

education, to determine e-learning activities in distance education institutions and
to identify the roles of administrative staff in distance education institutions.
Chapter 12, “Using Gamification in Open and Distance Learning: Management of
Learning and Human Resources,” aims to investigate the potential use of gamification
in management processes of open and distance learning.

Research indicates that academic procrastination is a common attitude among learners, and that it generally has a negative correlation with academic performance. The present quantitative causal-comparative study aims to determine the cause of differences, in terms of procrastination tendency, in academic performance among online learners. The study further investigates whether academic procrastination tendency significantly predicts the academic performance of online learners. The sample included a total of 333 online distance learners, from whom data were obtained through an online survey. Results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between male and female learners in terms of academic procrastination. Moreover, low procrastinators had better academic performance than that of high procrastinators, and learners' academic procrastination tendencies significantly predicted academic performance. These results demonstrate that academic procrastination tendency is an important indicator for predicting the academic achievements of online learners.

Studies have claimed that use of multimedia technologies motivate and stimulate the learning of students as compared to using traditional teaching methods alone. Multimedia aids are therefore significant in effective teaching learning process. It is even more significant in open and distance learning where the learners are separated from their teachers by distances. The study has been done by using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Data has been collected from all the fifteen Open Universities of India. In this study, the researchers have attempted to understand the availability and delivery mechanism of different multimedia courseware in institutions imparting distance learning in India. The study will also provide interesting findings like commonly used or most preferred multimedia technology in these institutions.

Purpose: This study describes the design of the Basic English 1 and Basic English 2 courses taught in the Foreign Languages School (FLS) of a large public university in Turkey as blended learning in a mostly distance education system. Research Method: This study was structured as a case study describing an instructional design effort. The study used the ADDIE instructional design model to convert these courses into the distance education format. In the analysis phase, the designers held discussions with the FLS lecturers to determine their needs and contextual limitations. These discussions revealed the knowledge and skills of the FLS students, the expectations of the lecturers and students, and the course objectives. The design process focused on determining Basic English 1 and 2 learning activities and presentation formats for these activities. Each course has a duration of 15 weeks and includes the skills of grammar, reading comprehension, writing, listening comprehension, and speaking. In the development phase, the designers added all the tools from the design phase to the Moodle environment. In the implementation phase, the designers conducted usability tests with the students and identified deficiencies of the design phase. In the evaluation phase, the designers improved the content based on student feedback from the usability tests. Findings: The designers conducted a planned and systematic design process based on the ADDIE instructional design model. At the end of the design process, the course content was transferred to the Moodle environment, and a usability test was administered to the students. The designers revised the environment’s design based on student feedback. Eventually, the study presented an environment that was suitable for blended learning educational activities that mainly used distance education. Implications for Research and Practice: Designing blended learning opportunities for formal learning environments is a rising trend, and the community can benefit from the documented design process.

Open learning is becoming a critical focus for K-12 technology-supported programs, both those
strictly online at a distance and blended classroom practices extending into online learning
environments. This chapter reviews the emerging practices influencing open learning in K-12 online
and blended environments by examining Open Educational Resources, Digital Literacy, and
Massive Open Online Courses. The implications of open learning are examined in relation to policy,
practice, and research in K-12 online and blended learning environments. An examination of
current literature has led to the authors’ call for a new focus on research in open learning practices in K-12 education. A list of possible future research opportunities and alternative academic research is proposed.

The study focused on the effect of COVID – 19 pandemic on the students’ mental health and education among the selected Grade 12 students of Asian Institute of Technology Sciences and the Arts (AITSA). Selected students from section Adams from ABM, Athens from GA, and Algiers and Amsterdam from STEM are the respondents of the study.

The study employed quasi-experimental research design, percentage, weighted mean and one way ANOVA to identify if there’s a significant difference between the genders of respondents and the effect of COVID – 19 on the mental health and education of the respondents.

This study revealed that COVID – 19 have a negative effect on both mental health and education of the students in Asian Institute of Technology, Sciences and the Arts. Students lose focus during the discussion and a student also feels stress because of their studies. Thus the study recommended that teachers may think of new learning approach so that students can focus on them and school may imply program relating to developing students’ mental health.