Privacy Law

Despite years of heavy criticism, privacy self-management (i.e., the principle that people individually manage their privacy via notice and choice) remains the standard of privacy protection throughout the Western world. Building on previous research, this paper provides an overview and classification of the manifold obstacles that render privacy self-management largely useless in practice. People's privacy choices are typically irrational, involuntary and/or circumventable due to human limitations, corporate tricks, legal loopholes and the complexities of modern data processing. While, at first glance, privacy self-management appears to embody fundamental values such as liberalism and individualism, in reality it rather deprives than strengthens people's autonomy. Moreover, the selfmanagement approach ignores the consequences that individual privacy choices have on other people and society at large. Regarding future research, we argue that the focus should not be on whether privacy self-management can be fixed by making it more user-friendly or efficient-it cannot. The concept is based on fundamentally wrong assumptions. To meaningfully address the potentials and dangers of personal data processing in the 21st century, a shift away from relying so heavily on individual control is inevitable. We discuss potential ways forward, stressing the need for government intervention to regulate the social impact of personal data processing.

როდიდან დაიწყო პირადი სფეროს დაცვაზე მსჯელობა და როდის გაჩნდა პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვის იდეა? ესაა კითხვა, რომელზეც ერთმნიშვნელოვანი პასუხი არ არსებობს. ამ საკითხის გასარკვევად აუცილებელია სხვადასხვა ეპოქაში პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვის თავისებურებების კვლევა. ცხადია, აღნიშნულ მოხსენებაში დაწვრილებით ვერ გაანალიზდება თითოეულ ეპოქაში პირადი ცხოვრების უზრუნველყოფის ყველა ასპექტი, მაგრამ შესაძლებელია სხვადასხვა დროს პირადი სფეროს დაცვის იმ უმთავრესი დებულებების დადგენა, რომლებიც ტენდენციებს გამოკვეთს. ამ გზით შესაძლებელი იქნება პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვის კონცეფციის განვითარების შესახებ გარკვეული წარმოდგენის შექმნა. შესაბამისად, კვლევის მიზანია პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვის იდეის წარმოშობის ისტორიის შესწავლა, რათა დადგინდეს, როდიდან გახდა პირადი სფეროს დაცვა აქტუალური. რა მნიშვნელობა აქვს იმის გარკვევას, როდის გაჩნდა პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვის იდეა? ეს საკითხი მთავარია ისტორიული თვალსაზრისით, რათა განისაზღვროს, რა ფორმით გვხვდებოდა პირადი სფერო დასაბამიდან დღემდე და როგორ ვითარდებოდა პირადი ცხოვრების ცნების მოცულობა. ამავე დროს, აღნიშნული თემა აქტუალურია სამართლებრივ ჭრილში იმისათვის, რომ დადგინდეს, რომელი ასპექტები შედიოდა პირადი ცხოვრებით დაცულ სფეროში ამა თუ იმ დროს და როგორია თანამედროვე მიდგომა პირადი სფეროს დაცვის ფარგლების შესახებ. შესაბამისად, ამ გზით გაეცემა პასუხი კითხვას: რა სპეციფიკით ხასიათდებოდა და როგორ იცვლებოდა პირადი ცხოვრების დაცვა სხვადასხვა ეპოქაში? ასევე, პრაქტიკული თვალსაზრისით დასადგენია თანამედროვე რეალობაში საჯარო და კერძო სფეროებს შორის მიმართება, ტექნოლოგიური განვითარების ზემოქმედების შედეგები პირადი ცხოვრების ცნების მოცულობაზე და პირადი სფეროს დაცვის ხერხები კერძო სამართალში. ამდენად, ეს კვლევა არის მცდელობა, სხვადასხვა ეპოქის შეფასების საფუძველზე გაირკვეს, რა მიმართულებით განვითარდა პირადი ცხოვრების ცნების მოცულობა დასაბამიდან დღემდე - საწყის ფორმაში გვხვდება, უმნიშვნელოდ შეიცვალა თუ ძირეული მოდიფიცირება განიცადა. ასევე, ნაშრომში მოკლედ აისახება თანამედროვე კერძო სამართლით პირადი სფეროს დაცვის მექანიზმები

Our bodies are increasingly subject to a technologized gaze. This article seeks to better understand the privacy implications of the new, body-focused mode of surveillance, by studying body scanners. The scanners, officially known as AIT (Advanced Imaging Technology), are deployed in airports throughout the United States. During 2013 the TSA will pull out the scanners that enable a detailed view of the naked body and replace them with a generic image. Despite the policy change, the theoretical issues regarding privacy, technology and the human body persist. Judicial assessment of the legality of body scanners has thus far assumed that scanning violates privacy, but then promptly moved to balance the privacy violation with national security interests. In other words, the harm to privacy was assumed, but not articulated. This article fills a gap in the legal discourse by exploring how exactly body scanners violate privacy. Understanding what aspects of privacy are at stake is essentia...

Talaq-e-biddat has been a source of severe oppression and injustice for Muslim women. The practice results in the unilateral breakdown of a marriage at the whim of the husband. The judicial trend has evolved against the practice since the courts have, at several occasions, declared the practice to be unacceptable with certain qualifications. In Shayara Bano v. Union of India, the Supreme Court conclusively struck down this practice. Subsequently, the Parliament came up with the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2017 which declared the practice as void and illegal. The Bill also makes the practice a non bailable and cognizable offence and provides imprisonment of three years for the same. The authors critically examine the bill and conclude that criminalising an act of private nature would have adverse repercussions on the institution of marriage. Although the Bill might prohibit triple talaq, it seems highly improbable that it would effectively achieve its objective of protecting the rights of married Muslim women at the same time. The authors suggest an alternative scheme which would achieve the objective of the Bill while overcoming its limitations. https://www.sociolegalreview.com/post/criminalisation-of-triple-talaq-dissecting-the-constitutional-and-socio-legal-aspects

Il trattamento dei cd. Big Data, per conformarsi al Regolamento europeo sulla protezione dei dati personali, richiede un'indagine preliminare volta a individuare quali siano le misure organizzative e tecniche idonee alla corretta valutazione e, poi, alla mitigazione del rischio per la privacy dei consumatori. L'articolo offre una prima ricognizione dell'apparato normativo applicabile ai Big Data e, rilevando l'inadeguatezza del tradizionale schema negoziale - basato sul binomio "informativa-consenso" - a tutelare i diritti del data owner, propone una riflessione su scenari regolamentari futuribili.

Ao analisar os comportamentos dos utilizadores através das mídias sociais, Hermida (2014) conclui que nestes ambientes observa-se claramente a natural predisposição humana para partilhar. Neste sentido, Rheingold (2012) discrimina cinco dimensões da literacia digital: Atenção; capacidade de detecção de lixo; participação; colaboração e uso inteligente das redes. O autor destaca também as quatro propriedades de qualquer rede social: persistência; replicabilidade; escalabilidade e capacidade de ser pesquisado; adicionando a importância de estar consciente do que nós compartilhamos e com quem (na medida em que por trás das redes, existem audiências invisíveis e entrecruzadas, insuspeitadas entre o público e o privado – apontado assim mesmo por Boyd, 2014 -).
Com uma perspetiva semelhante, Brake (2014) enfatiza a relevância do tempo e da memória, onde a acessibilidade, a durabilidade, a integralidade, a desigualdade e evolução são as principais características a ter em conta.
Lembrando-se do processo metodológico de abordagem ecológica de McLuhan, Ling (2008) concluiu que o telemóvel, multidimensional, gera uma interação mediada que ocupa o mesmo lugar, se não mesmo uma posição de topo, nas mentes dos indivíduos (ibid: 168). O conceito de gestão de privacidade em redes foi referido por Campbell (2014) como "Networked Privatism”. Marwick (2013) e Boyd (2014), por sua vez, empregaram o termo similar "Networked Privacy" para descrever as negociações emergentes dentro de ambientes específicos (dispositivos-mídias) e as esferas líquidas (Serrano Tellería, Oliveira; 2015) ou as constelações (Serrano Tellería, 2015).
Características específicas têm sido observadas em relação ao ecossistema móvel. Características gerais e relevantes do conteúdo on-line e das mídias digitais são a hipertextualidade, interatividade, multimedialidade e usabilidade. O ecossistema móvel acrescenta ubiquidade à fluidez, transitoriedade, reticularidade e dissolução de fronteiras definidas por Bauman (2005) na vida líquida moderna. Ele ainda se caracteriza pela "spreadability" e pela tensão entre a cultura de massa e colaborativa dentro de si (Jenkins, Ford & Green, 2013). Aguado et al. (2013) traçaram um paralelo entre esses recursos e da vida líquida moderna. A metáfora de Bauman da vida líquida, de acordo com a lógica da sociedade de consumo, prevê uma contrapartida útil para tratar de algumas das características de mobilidade.
Além da correlação entre o impacto da tecnologia digital e os recursos digitais da sociedade líquida (que remete para as reflexões sobre a aceleração, deslocamento, do consumo e do papel da identidade), os meios de comunicação móveis encaixam-se particularmente nos parâmetros de fluidificação das dimensões tecnológico, institucional e cultural dos mídias previamente descritos por McQuail (2006; Aguado et al, 2013).
Dadas as citadas características do ecossistema móvel dos mídias na Internet, apresenta-se neste trabalho uma análise das conversas que surgem entre os utilizadores neste ambiente fluido e em constante evolução como técnica metodológica para poder apreciar o desenvolvimento dos utilizadores por meio das mesmas aplicações, meios e plataformas que os amoldam.

Through his landmark exploration of obligation as the conceptual touchstone of what he describes as the “Jewish jurisprudence of the social order,” Robert Cover offered an alternate language for legal regimes grounded in a rhetoric of individual rights. The present essay revisits Cover’s account of the socially embedded nature of law and juridical process, taking seriously both its claims, as well as the cautions of its critics. The essay thus neither abandons the concept of rights as key to jurisprudence nor seeks to present a naïve or romantic characterization of Jewish legal thought, and proceeds wary of the pitfalls inherent in such comparative efforts. At the same time, it argues that Cover’s primary insight regarding the notion of a socially imbricated obligation as a core feature of Jewish jurisprudence and provides an important contribution. This theory is especially valuable in contexts in which contemporary policymakers and advocates have lacked success in locating a language or strategy sufficient to appreciate and address overwhelming modern problems at the juncture of individual and community. More specifically, drawing on our previous work exploring Jewish law lessons for information privacy and environmental ethics, this essay argues that a nuanced adaptation of Cover’s theory of “incumbent obligation” as the organizing feature of Jewish law, can provide contemporary policymakers with a set of conceptual tools to help develop alternative approaches to metastatic surveillance and environmental collapse.
The notion of obligation as the heart of an ethical and jurisprudential system provides a powerful corrective to the post-Enlightenment West’s centering of the “individual moral adventure” and the privileging of individual rights that has gone hand-in-hand with this ethos. The pre-modern roots of halakhah (Jewish law) permit a powerful challenge to this paradigmatic hegemony, as the Jewish legal tradition precedes liberalism and thus predates conceptions of the individual that undergird much of modern thinking, even as Jewish jurisprudence embodies a deep commitment to protecting individuals. Engagement with this tradition need not supplant liberalism. Rather, it presents a complementary ethical framework that can work within and enrich post-Enlightenment Western discourse. Reflecting this opportunity, revisiting Cover’s work provides a conceptual frame that is sufficiently flexible and capacious to provide an additional legal vocabulary and set of jurisprudential values that can help confront the greatest challenges of our age.

Available at: https://digitalcommons.tourolaw.edu/lawreview/vol37/iss4/16

There is general consensus amongst researchers that most South African companies are not yet ready to comply with the Protection of Personal Information Act No. 4 of 2013 (the POPI Act) as they lack the necessary skills, knowledge and understanding to effect such compliance. Whilst the flow of personal information to trans border clouds is lawful according to section 72 of the POPI Act, and cloud services offer benefits such as cost savings and agility, it has been determined that companies are yet to take cognisance of the fact that there are risks associated with such transfers.
Five preeminent emerging risks associated with cloud data storage include data location, security, privacy, legal compliance and the cloud service providers themselves. Because of their role as assurance providers, with knowledge about organisational strategy, processes and operations, internal auditors are found to be uniquely positioned within companies to assist effectively with risk management as required by The Institute of Internal Auditors’ International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing and the corporate governance standards presented in King III. Internal auditors have been shown to be able to assist in mitigating each of the five emerging risks through their effective auditing of contracts, policies, procedures and controls, which ultimately results in effective
advice and assurance for boards, management and stakeholders.

A court exercising equitable jurisdiction can deny specific relief if the order is likely to lack practical effect. This article examines the application of the doctrine of futility to injunctive relief. It will first consider the validity of futility arguments in Australian and UK domestic litigation and then analyse international litigation, where futility is often coupled with jurisdictional questions. The article will argue that the success of futility arguments depends on the likelihood that the order will lack practical utility for the plaintiff as well as the strength of other discretionary considerations. In international litigation, concerns about comity can combine with futility to make it appropriate to deny the exercise of the court’s jurisdiction. The recent Japanese Whaling Case demonstrates that futility concerns are also relevant in the case of statutory injunctions. In that context, the question of futility is linked intimately with the objects of the statute in question. A court should not refuse to exercise its jurisdiction on the basis of alleged futility where the mere granting of an injunction promotes the objects of the statute even if the likelihood of enforcement is small.

This thesis paper maps the milestones of data privacy case law and the evolution of legal doctrines established in the opinions as well as the novel legal and constitutional challenges that large-scale data breaches in the digital age present.
This paper also attempts to explore how the Cambridge-Analytica data harvest scandal features against US constitutional protections of privacy and specifically against the said case law of privacy protection.

Algorithms may seriously impair the right to privacy held by groups of individuals (and thus, more subtly, individuals themselves, but relationally). Indeed, a functional equivalence exists between the way personal data is gathered and aggregated, and the patterns of data analysis about groups of individuals, with the difference that whilst the first is (unevenly) regulated domestically, EU-wide, as well as internationally, the second is almost consistently disregarded. Consequently, one needs to determine whether a full-standing “right to group privacy” should be recognised also as a legal (alternatively to only moral) obligation. In the positive, policymakers shall establish the (expectedly sophisticated) criteria for deciding what groups would not be simply considered as “aggregated bundles of individual privacy rights” (defined here as “collective rights”, like in a standard “class action”) by algorithms’ owners, programmers, and end-users. The main contribution of the present study is to further the theoretical understanding of the relevance of mentioned distinction (collective vs group rights) by drawing normative inferences from the modern-day psychology theory of Gestalt, eventually encoding a wider range of legal shades, and possible implications thereof for privacy entitlements in everyday life.

With Andreu Wilson, Daniel Becker, Victor Silveira, and Vinícius Alvarez

We shouldn't have to make a choice between health and
privacy. For this, we publish a collection of country reports
on the legislative and regulatory measures taken in the
respective jurisdictions in response to Covid-19 from a
human rights and rule of law perspective, with particular
focus on privacy rights. The objective of the country
reports is to offer an overview of the main, or most
problematic, measures, and to highlight “alarm bells” and
“best practices” in assessing the state of privacy and data
protection amidst the current pandemic.

L’art. 82 del Regolamento generale sulla protezione dei dati personali tipizza, per la prima volta, una fattispecie di responsabilità civile di “vero e proprio” diritto privato europeo: e cioè un’unica regola continentale, self-executing, calata dall’alto su tutti i Paesi dell’Unione, in sostituzione delle singole regole nazionali di derivazione comunitaria (armonizzate al modello di base imposto dall’art. 23 dell’abrogata “Direttiva madre” 95/46/CE).
Lo scritto, dopo aver illustrato il cammino che ha condotto al passaggio da una pluralità di discipline nazionali armonizzate alla stessa direttiva alla previsione di una disciplina europea uniforme di fonte regolamentare, s’incentra sull’analisi delle conseguenze sistemiche indotte da questo decisivo “cambio di passo”. Sicché, all’esito di tale analisi, l’art. 82 del GDPR ci appare come la prima pietra di un edificio normativo soprannazionale (quello del diritto comune europeo della responsabilità civile), in buona misura ancora da costruire con il rilevante apporto dell’opera interpretativa/integrativa della Corte di giustizia.


Article 82 of GDPR defines, for the first time, a case of civil liability of "real" European private law: a single continental self-executing rule dictated top down  upon all countries of the Union to replace the individual national rules, which were previously harmonized according to the scheme provided by the art. 23 of the "Mother Directive" 96/46/CE, today repealed.
The paper, after illustrating the path that led to the above mentioned point, focuses on the analysis of the sistemic consequences of this important step change. Upon the outcome of the analysis art. 82 shows itself as the first brick of a supernational building of rules (common European rules of civil liability), which is still to be built, mostly with the relevant interpretative-supplementary contribution by the Court of Justice.

When the American National Security Agency whistle-blower, Edward Snowden,
passionately spoke of privacy, he called it the fountainhead of all other rights that
should be protected, for it gives us the ability to share with the world who we are in our
own terms and without it, we have nothing for ourselves.1

It is a right that is not only protected by civil law internationally but also under canon law. Privacy laws are subject to much reform worldwide now as the law tries to catch up with advancements in technology. The Catholic Church long engaged in the development and protection of human rights, must now proactively address, and match these civil law reforms for the protection of Christ’s faithful which this paper seeks to discuss.

Module- Intellectual Property
Breach of confidence- Final year project

‘Although the law of ‘old-fashioned breach of confidence’ has been well established for many years, and derives historically from equitable principles, these have been extended in recent years under the stimulus of the Human Rights Act 1998 and the content of the Convention itself. The law now affords protection to information in respect of which there is a reasonable expectation of privacy, even in circumstances where there is no pre-existing relationship giving rise of itself to an enforceable duty of confidence. That is because the law is concerned to prevent the violation of a citizen’s autonomy, dignity, and self-esteem.’

(Mosley v Newsgroup Newspapers Ltd [2008] EWHC 1777 (QB) per Eady J at para 7.

Discuss critically the developing action for misuse of private information by reference to this quote.

The General Data Protection Regulation (the GDPR) of the European Union (EU) emerges as a hot-button issue in contemporary global politics, policies, and business. Based on an omnibus legal substance, extensive extraterritorial scope and influential market powers, it appears as a standard for global data protection regulations as can be witnessed by the growing tendency of adopting, or adjusting relevant national laws following the instrument across the globe. Under Article 3, of the GDPR applies against any data controller or processor within and outside the EU, who process the personal data of EU residents. Therefore, the long arm of the GDPR is extended to cover the whole world, including Malaysia. This gives rise to tension worldwide, as non-compliance thereof leads to severe fines of up to €20 million or 4% of annual turnover. This is not a hypothetical possibility, rather a reality, as a huge amount of fines are already imposed on many foreign companies, such as Google, Facebook, Uber, and Equifax to name a few. Such a scenario, due to the existence of state sovereignty principles under international law, has made the researchers around the world curious about some questions, why does the EU adopt an instrument having the extraterritorial application; whether the extraterritorial scope is legitimate under normative international law; how the provisions of this instrument can be enforced, and how these are justified. This article attempts to search for answers to those questions by analyzing the relevant rules and norms of international law and the techniques of the EU employed. The article concludes with the findings that the extraterritorial scope of the GDPR is justified under international law in a changed global context. The findings of 

Rapid growth in the use of drones potentially delivers significant economic benefits, but it has also given rise to considerable public concern about safety risks, infringement of privacy, and other unwelcome surveillance and observation. Drones are able to be operated remotely from the pilot, making it difficult to identify the operator and attribute liability for harm caused. This in turn means that existing regulatory frameworks might not induce an efficient level of drone-related harm.

The first substantive chapter of this thesis considers measures to address concerns about privacy and surveillance. I propose the adoption of a package of measures including: tort law reform, the promulgation of a "Code of Practice for Drone Operations" under New Zealand's Privacy Act 1993, a remotely-readable identifier to identify approved operators, provision for aerial trespass by unmanned aircraft, provision for the destruction of unmanned aircraft committing trespass, and the clarification of what constitutes a privacy violation by broadcast or closed-circuit television and video systems.

Fundamental to those proposals are the concepts of drone registration and the legalisation of the right to self-defence against drones. Registration requires that a drone is registered with the regulatory authorities, with a registered drone being traceable back to the owner of the drone. Registered drones may also be required to carry a remotely-readable identifier. Legalisation of self-defence allows bystanders to take defensive actions against drones, with the potential for a drone to be destroyed. Both of these mechanisms provide a means by which the operator of a drone faces some cost if they are causing harm, and thus may induce more efficient actions by the drone operator.

This thesis establishes a theoretical framework for self-defence, registration, and registration in conjunction with self-defence. Conditions are established under which each will be the preferred form of regulation. It is also established that the status quo, with neither registration nor self-defence, is likely to be optimal when harm from drone activity is relatively low.

The conditions established around when self-defence is efficient also provide the conditions for the regulation of counter-drone systems. I identify the legal impediments to the implementation of drone-detection systems and counter-drone systems in New Zealand, and propose a regulatory framework to allow the adoption of those systems.

Păstrarea secretului profesional este o obligație ce se regăsește în multe sisteme de drept, iar domeniul medical este unul dintre cele mai vechi  în care a fost instituită această obligație.
Societatea modernă, tehnologiile medicale de ultimă generație, mijloacele de comunicare și alte asemenea elemente au generat probleme noi nu doar în domeniul strict medical, și mai ales al eticii medicale, ci și în cel juridic.
Articolul își propune o incursiune în problematica reglementării secretului profesional medical în legislația română, cu incursiuni în legislațiile altor state, și remarcă nevoia de dezbateri juridice și eventuale modificări legislative atât asupra unor nejustificate extinderi ale obligației de păstrare a secretului profesional medical, cât și asupra necesității unor reglementări mai clare a cazurilor în care medicul are dreptul sau este obligat să divulge informații confidențiale.

Privacidad y protección de datos personales son dos derechos que surgen en respuesta a los nuevos desafíos planteados por el desarrollo de los medios de comunicación y los avances de la tecnología. Ambos tutelan nuestra libertad, autonomía y espacios de autorrealización personal, configurándose como límites a las libertades de expresión e información, entre otros derechos.
La Ley Nº 19.628, sobre Protección de la Vida Privada, fue publicada en 1999, y, pese a más de una década de proyectos de reforma sin éxito, se mantiene vigente. Se trata de un marco normativo que carece de un régimen de infracciones y sanciones adecuado y una autoridad de control independiente, con las competencias idóneas para ejecutar la ley. Ante tal precariedad regulatoria, la forma cómo los tribunales interpretan y aplican las escasas y escuetas reglas que tenemos sobre la materia es de vital importancia.
Por ello, la jurisprudencia judicial y administrativa juega un rol esencial al dotar de contenido y sentido a las normas que interpreta, aun cuando las sentencias tengan efectos inter partes.
La dogmática, a su vez, se nutre de la casuística del caso concreto para examinar criterios de interpretación y evaluar la aplicación de la norma. Este libro es un intento de reconstrucción de la jurisprudencia para avanzar en una dogmática de la privacidad y de la protección de los datos personales. Para ello, se ha reunido a destacadas expertas y expertos de nuestro país. En estas páginas el lector se encontrará con las dificultades que enfrentan los operadores jurídicos para articular privacidad, autodeterminación informativa, inviolabilidad de las comunicaciones privadas, honra, libertad de expresión y acceso a la información pública, entre otros derechos.

Sports administration in Nigeria is both a public and a private issue and as both levels of government are involved, a lot of records and personal information is involved. It is common knowledge that the advent of information communication technology has made information creation and dissemination much easier and faster than before and this calls for effective regimes for the protection of personal information. This article examines the evolution of sports administration in Nigeria and the place of informational privacy and data protection. It points out that though the field of sports law in Nigeria is a developing field of law, there is the need for the parties involved to ensure that risks are minimised while the integrity of sports is preserved. Since sports practitioners and administrators collate and process data from time to time, they must recognise the limits that are imposed on the use, transfer and exchange of such data. The article draws lessons from other jurisdictions and points out though there are Guidelines for data protection in Nigeria, she does not yet have an effective data protection regime and thus much needs to be done to protect personal information in the field of sports as well as other fields.

Few would deny that monitoring employees is a necessary part of doing business. The very act of paying someone for services would necessitate, in a competitive environment, that the product produced or time spent working be observed. Continued employment, raises, and profit sharing rewards require employers to monitor their employees. Surveillance may be necessary to diminish corporate liability for sexual harassment claims, absenteeism, safety concerns, employee theft and other illegal activities that take place at work. Nevertheless, we may wonder at the efficacy and moral legitimacy of employee drug testing. In this article, after a presumption in favor of individual privacy has been established, several of the most prominent arguments in support of employee drug testing will be considered. As we shall see, none of the arguments typically offered in favor of workplace drug testing are particularly compelling.

This report issued by the Law Reform Committee of the Singapore Academy of Law considers whether the existing legal protections from the disclosure and serious misuse of private information in Singapore are sufficient and effective.

At present, while various protections for victims of such misuse and related breaches of privacy exist, these derive from an assortment of different statutory and common law causes of action (for example, suing for intentional infliction of emotional distress, private nuisance and/or breach of confidence, or bringing claims under the Personal Data Protection Act or Protection from Harassment Act). This patchwork of laws – several of which were designed primarily to address matters other than misuse of private information – not only risks making the law more difficult for victims to navigate, it also risks some instances of serious misuse of private information not being effectively provided for and those affected finding themselves with no real recourse or remedy.

Given these shortcomings, it is submitted that a statutory tort of misuse of private information should be introduced.

(The draft bill annexed to the report was prepared by Phang Hsiao Chung, Deputy Registrar of the Supreme Court, in his capacity as a member of the Law Reform Committee.)

The report may be cited as follows: Jack Tsen-Ta Lee & Phang Hsiao Chung; Simon Constantine (ed), Report on Civil Liability for Misuse of Private Information (Singapore: Law Reform Committee, Singapore Academy of Law, 2020) (ISBN 978-981-14-7748-5)

Information about the status of the report is available at https://www.sal.org.sg/Resources-Tools/Law-Reform/Misuse_of_Private_Information.

Financial technology also known as FinTech is experiencing a phenomenal growth across the globe. Consequently, given the numerous opportunities provided by the FinTech sector, Mauritius has been since the year 2016 been engaged in various endeavours to promote the development of this industry. Nevertheless, the implementation of internet technology and digitalisation of the financial services sectors such as online payment, wealth management, insurance, virtual currency or peer-to-peer lending are likely to cause significant regulatory issues. Hence, it is against this background that the study intends to assess the legal framework with the view of determining whether the existing laws of Mauritius are effective in addressing the challenges that emerge from the rapid growth of FinTech. The research will focus only on data protection as a matter of regulatory concern. The method used for the research is in essence comprised of the black letter approach whereby analysis is made on the laws of Mauritius to assess their effectiveness in tackling new challenges posed by the FinTech sector in relation to data protection. In line with that, the related laws of some other jurisdictions will be examined with a view to seeking recommendations that may be of use to Mauritius stakeholders. Finally, the doctrinal approach will be used so as to critically analyse studies carried out by eminent scholars on the legal issues of FinTech. The paper aims at responding to the research objective set out above. In particular, it is recommended that an amendment to Mauritius laws is necessary in order to create a legal framework that will be more conducive to protect various stakeholders concerned in the FinTech sector. Principally, the Mauritius Data Protection Act 2017 and the regulatory framework will need to be revised in order to promote Mauritius as a sound and attractive investment and business centre. In addition, common consensus agrees that FinTech entails the risk of cybercrimes and money laundering. As such, future scope of research can be focused on the effectiveness of cybercrimes laws as well as anti-money laundering laws in Mauritius in addressing the aforementioned challenges further to the emergence of the FinTech industry in the country. This study is amongst the first research conducted that assesses the efficiency of data protection laws in the context of the FinTech industry.

In this paper I will offer several arguments in support of the view that individuals have moral claims to control personal
information. Coupled with rights to control access to one's body, capacities, and powers, or physical privacy rights, we will have taken important steps toward a general right to privacy. In Part I, a definition of privacy is offered along with an account of the value of privacy. Simply put, privacy - defined as control over access to locations and information - is necessary for human well-being. In Part II, an attempt to move beyond claims of value to claims of obligation is presented and defended. Policies that sanction the capturing, storing, and trading of personal information about others is something we each have reasons to avoid. In the final part, the tension between privacy and security is considered. It is argued that privacy rights may be set aside only if specific procedural conditions are followed.

Anticipatory and advanced care planning has several aspects that could be relevant in the light of data protection rules. In this perspective, the essay describes the main characteristics of this tool, and it highlights the needs for privacy of the concrete author. Consciousness and informed consent are the key issues of the study. It is also analyzed the realization of the Italian database of anticipatory and advanced care planning, with specific regard to a possible personal data breach.

L’istituto delle disposizioni anticipate di trattamento presenta diversi profili rilevanti alla luce della normativa sulla protezione dei dati personali. Pertanto, premessi i tratti salienti di questa figura, vengono delineate le principali esigenze di riservatezza connesse alla l. 22 dicembre 2017, n. 219, avendo riguardo all’attuazione concreta dell’istituto in esame ed alla consapevolezza del soggetto disponente nella redazione delle DAT. Viene altresí prestata attenzione anche ad un potenziale illecito trattamento di dati personali in seno alla realizzazione della Banca dati nazionale delle DAT.

With the advent of new technologies, new means of surveillance and data collection have appeared on the radar. Drones are among the latest to be considered for domestic security purposes, both in the EU and the USA. After surveying some examples of the non-warfare use of drone for security and criminal justice purposes, this article analyses applicable privacy and data protection legislation and constitutional guarantees, on both sides of the Atlantic. This study extends to the application to drone-generated data of, inter alia, the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution, Council of Europe instruments, and the EU Data Protection Framework, highlighting challenges to civil liberties and tensions between these and national security and justice concerns. Finally, this article looks briefly at proposals for legislative reform regarding drones at the US State and Federal levels and prospects for future legislation.

The paper examines a recent ruling by the Court of Cassation concerning the legitimacy of the acquisition of a biobank, with regard to the processing of genetic data by the transferee company. The author outlines the essential features of the “secondary” circulation of health data, concerning the flows of data between controllers and the modifications of the roles of the subjects involved in the data processing. Therefore, some remedial solutions are identified in order to ensure compliance with the legislation on data protection and, in particular, the fundamental rights of the data subject.

Il contributo esamina una recente pronuncia della Corte di cassazione avente ad oggetto la legittimità della cessione di una biobanca. Vengono valutati, in particolar modo, i profili riguardanti il trattamento dei dati genetici da parte della società cessionaria. A tal fine, l'autore delinea i caratteri essenziali della circolazione "secondaria" di dati sanitari, riguardante i trasferimenti di dati fra titolari e le modificazioni privatistiche dei ruoli dei soggetti coinvolti nel trattamento. Nella prospettiva ordinamentale, dunque, si individuano alcuni profili rimediali finalizzati a garantire il rispetto della normativa sulla protezione dei dati e, in particolar modo, dei diritti fondamentali del soggetto interessato.

In the last decades, the Strasbourg Court’s political activism has been criticized by several legal scholar and intellectuals. Though the institution does not belong to the European Union, it would be misleading to think about it as an institution alien to the European project. Indeed, it has become a symbol for the Union and a powerful influence in shaping its understanding of the European values and human rights standards. In this article, one of the most controversial examples of the political impact of the Court’s decisions in the moral and cultural diversity of the European nations will be analyzed.

This article looks at two interrelated issues that we will be confronting since the invention of “Google Glass”. First, the development of a particular technology that is inevitable and sometimes autonomous and, second, potential victims of that innovation. I argue that the expansion of a technology like “Google Glass”, in particular the use of this technology for taking “creepshots”, blurs the line between what is considered public and private. “Creepshots” are covertly taken sexually indicative photographs, mostly of women, which are posted online without consent. In fact, it is the lack of consent that is the crucial component for a photograph to be classified as a “creep shot”. Vint Cerf argues that “Google Glass” provides ‘an opportunity to experiment with what happens when you allow a computer to become part of your sensory environment. It sees and hears what you see and hear and it can apply its power and the power of the Internet to make use of information in context.’ In an...

In the United States, legal steps have been taken to protect personal privacy, which is viewed as an individual's fundamental right. Location privacy (i.e., protection of personal and location information), however, has not received equal attention in the legal system. Given the recent popularity of location-based services (e.g., cell phones), it is possible to obtain an individual's location information easily and precisely. An investigation of public perception of privacy in the United States indicated that survey responders (1) were unaware of legal implications of location privacy violation and (2) believed that there should be location privacy protection similar to that provided by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. En Estados Unidos se han emprendido acciones legales para proteger la privacidad personal, considerada como un derecho fundamental del individuo. Sin embargo, la privacidad locacional (esto es, la protección de la información sobre localización personal) no ha recibido igual atención en el sistema legal. Tomando en cuenta la reciente popularidad de servicios basados en localización (e.g., teléfonos celulares), ahora es posible obtener de manera fácil y precisa información sobre la localización de un individuo. Una investigacion sobre la percepción pública de la privacidad en los Estados Unidos indica que quienes respondieron la encuesta, (1) ignoraban las implicaciones legales de la violación de la privacidad locacional y (2) creían que debería haber una protección de la privacidad locacional similar a la que otorgan la Ley de Portabilidad y Responsabilidad del Seguro de Salud y la Ley de Derechos Educativos de la Familia y Privacidad.

Privacy is a necessity for any human to keep one's individuality to one's own. Thus, the right to privacy is provided to people through different statutory rules, norms of society and understanding among human beings. Over time, 'the right to privacy' gets an undisputable status as an absolute human right. But, sitting in an era of internet, where technology has advanced in such a manner that it has brought a revolution in the manner of communication and information system. In this digital era of communication, one is ruining one's privacy by own sharing behaviour without knowing the final fate of the information in this globally connected world. Moreover, as the information gets stored in the computer-based system, the chance of a threat to one's privacy remains. In this context, the paper will explore whether being a country of 20th Century , Bangladesh has considered "the right to privacy" as a fundamental right. In doing so, the paper will scrutinize how the right is protected under the national laws. In discussing the development of 'the right to privacy" and technology, the paper will argue the importance of protecting the right to privacy. In this digital era, where the people have started sharing their information with relatively faceless institutions for use-it urges for the security of this personal information.

Privacy is a necessity for any human to keep one's individuality to one's own. Thus, the right to privacy is provided to people through different statutory rules, norms of society and understanding among human beings. Over time, 'the right to privacy' gets an undisputable status as an absolute human right. But, sitting in an era of internet, where technology has advanced in such a manner that it has brought a revolution in the manner of communication and information system. In this digital era of communication, one is ruining one's privacy by own sharing behaviour without knowing the final fate of the information in this globally connected world. Moreover, as the information gets stored in the computer-based system, the chance of a threat to one's privacy remains. In this context, the paper will explore whether being a country of 20th Century , Bangladesh has considered "the right to privacy" as a fundamental right. In doing so, the paper will scrutinize how the right is protected under the national laws. In discussing the development of 'the right to privacy" and technology, the paper will argue the importance of protecting the right to privacy. In this digital era, where the people have started sharing their information with relatively faceless institutions for use-it urges for the security of this personal information.

I have argued elsewhere that individuals have moral privacy rights that limit the surveillance activities of governments. While not absolute, privacy rights shield individuals from the prying eyes and ears of neighbors, corporations, and the state. The question that I will consider in this article is one of balance when are security interests weighty enough to overbalance individual privacy rights? Before defending my own account, I will critique three rival views. One way to strike a balance between privacy and security is to let those in power decide. In most cases, these individuals seek public office for noble purposes—we should let them decide how best to protect privacy and security. I call this position “just trust us.” A second view minimizes privacy interests by calling into doubt the activities privacy may shield. This view, called “nothing to hide,” maintains that individuals should not worry about being monitored. Only those who are engaged in immoral and illegal activity should worry about government surveillance. Similar to “nothing to hide” is the view that “security trumps.” This latter account holds that security interests are—by their nature weightier than privacy claims. After offering a critique of these attempts at balancing, I will defend my own account. I will argue that by insisting on judicial discretion for issuing warrants, demonstrating probable cause for an intrusion, and allowing public oversight of the process and reasoning involved, we may promote both privacy and security. Finally, in the concluding section I will consider the WikiLeaks movement and its impact on accountability.

A United States law called FERPA is designed to protect students’ privacy rights. However, there are many gaping holes in the law, and it is relatively easy for any marketing company to slalom around the regulations.

FERPA permits ease of access to highly confidential information about children yet at the same time, requires the information to be used in a way that is responsible, secured, and protected.

This article describes the positive attributes of FERTPA but also its risks and pitfalls.