Privateering

Las primeras décadas del siglo XVIII vieron un importan-te recrudecimiento de la tensión militar y geopolítica en el Mediterráneo occidental. A ello contribuyeron las aspiraciones frustradas surgidas de los acuerdos de la paz de Utrecht y Rastatt. La España de Felipe V fue uno de los principales contendientes que pugnó por la hegemonía en la zona. Para conseguirla, se vio obligada a realizar esfuerzos logísticos, militares y económicos de gran calibre. Este artículo tiene como objetivo principal constatar cómo la dinámica del corso, de larga tradición en las costas hispánicas, fue utilizada de manera directa por la Corona como una herramienta más de su estrategia mediterránea.

Collection of contributions on the phenomenon of Piracy in the ancient Mediterranean World, with special reference to its development in the Roman Period as well as to some aspects of its evolution from the Middle Ages to the Present, in order to ascertain its impact on the political agendas and the legal systems of different periods.

Presentation delivered at the international symposium "El Pacifico" at the University of Seville, Spain, in October 2013.  The analysis offers new insights on the decline of the East India Company and the South Sea Company following the European settlement of New Holland in 1788, and the Nootka Convention of 1790.

Voici le texte de ma présentation faite à Boulogne sur Mer en novembre 2019. Or cette question ouverte m'a conduit à m'interroger si je ne devais pas poursuivre les investigations pour en faire un article. Je vous remercie d'avance pour votre aide et remarques.

Here is the text of my presentation made in Boulogne sur Mer in November 2019. However, this open question led me to wonder if I should not continue the investigations to make an article. Thank you in advance for your help and remarks.

Aquí está el texto de mi presentación realizada en Boulogne sur Mer en noviembre de 2019. Sin embargo, esta pregunta abierta me llevó a preguntarme si no debería continuar las investigaciones para hacer un artículo. Gracias de antemano por su ayuda y comentarios.

Hier is de tekst van mijn presentatie gemaakt in Boulogne sur Mer in november 2019. Deze open vraag bracht me echter tot de vraag of ik niet door moest gaan met het onderzoek om een artikel te maken. Ik dank voor uw hulp en opmerkingen.

Ecco il testo della mia presentazione fatta a Boulogne sur Mer nel novembre 2019. Tuttavia, questa domanda aperta mi ha portato a chiedermi se non avrei dovuto continuare le indagini per fare un articolo. Grazie in anticipo per l'aiuto e le osservazioni.

El siguiente trabajo pretende analizar de manera breve la presencia de corsarios y piratas en la isla de La Española entre los mediados del siglo XVI y los mediados del XVII, realizando una breve visión de sus actores, características y consecuencias para establecer la relación entre el desarrollo corso-pirático y la evolución de algunos aspectos de la Isla en ese tiempo. // The aim of this study is to analyze briefly the presence of piracy in Hispaniola between mid-sixteenth and mid-seventeenth centuries, giving a brief insight about actors, characteristics and consequences so as to establish a relation between the piracy’s development and the evolution of some aspects about the Island in this period.

The rise and decline of Atlantic piracy has been used to gauge the level of commercial, administrative, naval, and diplomatic control that Britain exercised in the Atlantic. Indeed, historians have suggested that by 1730, Britain had eradicated piracy in the region. These studies credit a governmental campaign of law enforcement and moral persuasion for a revolutionary shift in public attitudes against piracy. A close examination, however, reveals that piracy flourished in Atlantic waters well into the nineteenth century, and that Britain’s command of the region was not nearly as thorough as some have suggested. Old practices and beliefs regarding piracy’s legality and propriety persisted in the face of imperial attempts to effect change—Britons continued to regard “armed commerce” as wholly conventional and legitimate. Piracy was eventually ushered out of the Atlantic indirectly and inadvertently, not through forceful confrontation at sea and port, but in response to the reduced profitability of contraband.
  Britain’s ineffective anti-piracy campaign reveals the limits of British power at sea, but also on land, vis-à-vis its constituents. Violence and property losses at sea were useful to authorities in their efforts to articulate differences between the illegitimate violence of pirates and smugglers, and legitimate force wielded by the government. And yet, the government’s attempts to extend its jurisdiction beyond coastal waters, monopolize violence, and sanction some forms of maritime commerce while delegitimizing others, were consistently resisted, ignored, and thwarted by large swaths of British society on both sides of the ocean. British subjects retained an archaic and localist conception of society, state, and law, and resisted legal and bureaucratic structures put in place by landed governments to facilitate state building. 

  The chronological discrepancy regarding the passing of piracy and the resultant misconception regarding Britain’s control of the Atlantic are products of historians’ modernist definition of piracy. This anachronistic understanding of piracy obscures the continued activity of pirates in the Atlantic during the “long eighteenth century” and gives credence to the presumptions of eighteenth-century governments to monopolize the use of force at sea.

The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict in which maritime privateers, especially Basque, weighed heavily. This work
aims to focus the study of privateering practices prevailing in the Lordship of Biscay between 1739 and 1748, on the central axis of the work of the frigate Nuestra Señora de Begoña y San Jose alias Marte Vizcaíno.

When in 1621 was established the Dutch West India Company, the United Provinces of the Netherlands were ready to enter in the Spanish mare clausum in the New World. Due to their traditional liberal approach to religious freedom, the Dutch colonial possessions in America were characterized by a wide fusion of cultures. While in the former Spanish colonies remains the legacy of Catholicism and Spanish language, the Dutch territories are characterized by its pidginized linguas francas: Papiamentu from the Leeward Antilles, or Shranan from Surinam.
This contribution is based on the historical reasons of the contemporary socio-cultural consequences of the Dutch presence in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast in the 17th
century, and it focuses particularly on the topic of language and religious distribution, together with the politological aspects of decolonization.

Key words: United Provinces of the Netherlands, privateer, WIC, Shranan, Papiamentu, Leeward Antilles, Surinam, Reformed Church

NEW ARTICLE with
The Napoleonic Wars saw the British capture and incarcerate thousands of sailors in disused Royal Navy ships, the so-called prison hulks. Many Danes and Norwegians – navy personnel, privateers and merchant sailors – were thus interred. This article uses a new data source, the official record books kept in the National Archive at Kew, to test whether the prison hulks were as bad as popular perception might suggest. In doing so, we provide the first rigorous quantitative assessment of the Danish and Norwegian sailors’ prisoner experience. We find that death rates were surprisingly low, suggesting the quantity and quality of food and medical care was reasonable. Prison hulks were not ‘floating tombs’. The records also show which prisoners were released and exchanged, and when. Officers did well, reflecting the age old system of a gentleman’s honour. Privateers did worse than merchant sailors: those who took up arms were likely to serve longer as prisoners.

Barbaresques, boucaniers, flibustiers, guerres de course, abordages, razzias, butins, partages de prises, chasses au trésor, canonnades… Corsaires et pirates jalonnent de leurs exploits la vie maritime et peuplent notre imaginaire. Voici le premier dictionnaire historique sur ces aventuriers des mers : près de 600 entrées, une oeuvre monumentale, les meilleurs spécialistes pour faire revivre ces personnages hauts en couleur, des plus emblématiques comme Drake, Jean Bart, Surcouf, Duguay-Trouin, Dragut, Barberousse, aux oubliés de l'histoire ainsi qu'aux discrets mais indispensables armateurs. Un voyage dans le temps et à travers les océans où sont visités les principaux lieux associés à la course et à la piraterie, d'Alger aux Caraïbes, en passant par Boston,

Under den store nordiske krig, 1709-1720, foregikk det en livlig kaperkrig i Norden mellom Danmark-Norge og Sverige. Denne artikkelen beskriver de norske kaperne og deres del av konflikten. Det er et tema som i liten grad er belyst av norske historikere. Artikkelen ser på hva som var myndighetenes mål med å åpne opp for kapere, lovverket, hvem det var som finansierte og bemannet de norske kaperskipene, hvordan virksomheten var organisert og hvordan den i praksis foregikk.

Videre følges de norske kapernes opp- og nedturer gjennom krigen og de mange problemene de møtte. Det var ikke mange kaperskip det er snakk om, i løpet av krigen ble det rustet ut 12 skip. De tok over 100 svenske og nøytrale skip som priser. Men som følge av juridiske og diplomatiske forviklinger måtte svært mange av disse leveres tilbake. Enkelte av rederne tjente penger, men ikke store summer og de fleste rederiene viste seg å være rene underskuddsforetak. For å motvirke dette satte kaperrederne i gang utstrakt lobbyvirksomhet i København for å skaffe seg bedre vilkår, med vekslende hell. Det hele sammenlignes med aktiviteten hos fienden i det svenske kaperredet Göteborg. 

Artikkelen forsøker også å svare på spørsmålet om hvor stor innvirkning på krigen kaperiet egentlig hadde. I tillegg trekkes det frem flere av aktørene; kaperkapteiner, redere og beslutningstagere, i tillegg til dramatiske episoder fra sjø og havner.

La course française en Méditerranée au XVIIe siècle, de la décennie 1630 à 1697 par Roberto Barazzutti. Ceci est un brouillon de l'article en cour d'écriture pour une publication prochaine. Il est mis sur le site academia.edu sans l'intégralité des références archivistiques et bibliographiques, ni toutes les corrections, à des fins d'avoir les avis et conseils des autres membres et personnes qui me suivent. Il ne doit pas être copier ni recopier. Merci d'avance pour votre aide et le respect de cette règle. This is a rough draft of the article in writing for an upcoming publication. It is put on the site acadamia.edu without full archival and bibliographic references, or any corrections, for the purpose of having the opinions and advice of other members and people who follow me. It must not be copied. Thank you in advance for your help and respect for this rule.

"ABSTRACT


ATLANTIC PIRATES:
THE PAWNS OF RIVALRY IN THE MODERN WORLD-SYSTEM,
1650-1713

Alptekin, Onur
M. Sc., Department of Latin and North American Studies
Middle  East Technical University
Supervisor:    Assist. Prof. Dr. Sheila Pelizzon

January 2014, 179 pages


This thesis is a survey through a specific relation of two continents, namely Latin America and Europe between 1650 and 1713. This specific relation was piratical activities that European countries conducted in the trade routes in Atlantic Ocean. Yet, in this study, piracy in these trade routes is not perceived as just a criminal activity, but a paramilitary tool used by European states in a rivalry for control over the Atlantic trade routes.
"

Guerre au commerce et commerce de guerre 1 par Roberto Barazzutti «Nous sortons d'une guerre qui nous a fait faire plus de progrès dans le commerce que nous n'eussions pu en acquérir nous-mêmes en un siècle entier... Ces prises, venant de toutes les parties du monde, nous ont fait voir avec étonnement la grandeur, l'étendue, la qualité du commerce des Anglais et des Hollandais... Le jugement de ces prises, qu'il a fallu suivre au Conseil, a aussi... prévenu fort favorablement les ministres pour le commerce... Notre supériorité à la mer, au moyen des armements en course, nous mettait en état de soutenir notre navigation ordinaire sans trop d'interruption, parce qu'elle était petite d'elle-même et nos vaisseaux bien armés... Au contraire, nous faisions de grosses prises sur eux, qui causaient un commerce étranger et surabondant dans le Royaume, qui occupait et faisait gagner les peuples et grossissait le revenu des fermes. Les étrangers, privés du secours des marchandises dont ces prises étaient chargées, virent leur commerce diminué à un point qu'ils furent obligés de les faire racheter en France. Cela nous causait un double mouvement très utile... ». Cette citation du mémoire du député du commerce de Nantes, Joachim Descazeau du Hallay le 4 mars 1702, fait l'éloge de la course en ce qu'elle aurait permis d'accroître le commerce et les finances de la France au détriment de celui de ses ennemis 2. Dès l'origine, la guerre de course est liée au commerce et à l'économie. Avec l'apparition des lettres de représailles au XII e siècle 3 ,

"This book offers annotated translations of documents touching on Dutch admiral Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge and his voyage to Asia between 1605 and 1608. These translations are aimed at a contemporary English-speaking Asian readership interested in the early modern history of European trade, warfare and expansion in Southeast Asia with a focus on Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. Researchers specialising in early European colonialism, international law, international relations, security studies, and diplomatic history will also find that the documents translated in this volume offer new and unfamiliar perspectives. Materlieff’s business acumen, military and diplomataic prowess as well as his vision of empire all have implications for examining not only European expansion into Southeast Asia, but also into other regions at large, including especially south Asia, Africa and the Americas.
Admiral Matelieff was a director of the Rotterdam Chamber of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) formed in 1602. He was appointed fleet commander on one of the company’s first voyages to Asia. Matelieff’s mission was both commercial and military: he launched a major sea-borne attack on the Portuguese colony of Melaka, arranged for the signing of treaties with the rulers of Johor, Aceh and Ternate, and founded the first Dutch fort on the island of Ternate. His endeavours, however, to open the Chinese market for the Dutch company proved unsuccessful.
Following his return to the Dutch Republic in September 1608, Matelieff penned a series of memorials and letters. In these he advanced recommendations for changing the way the company organized its fleets and conducted business. More importantly he offered  his Dutch contemporaries a vision of empire in Asia. The materials contained in this volume offer important observations of a perceptive analyst who was also determined to grasp the political and economic structures of Asia, and also of inter-state relations in across this vast region. At a time of Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, French and English engagement in Southeast Asia, Matelieff sought to critically assess and strategize on the ways in which Europeans were increasingly engaging with Asian polities and their rulers.

This book will be released for sale in Australasia and Europe in June 2014 and available in the Americas after September 2014
""""

A la suite de la parution du Dictionnaire sur les corsaires et les pirates ainsi que de l'Histoire des corsaires et des Pirates sous la direction de Philippe Hrodej et Gilbert Buti, en 2013 et en 2016, j'ai décidé de poursuivre le travail de bibliographie car bien  des travaux étrangers (turcs, portugais, danois, norvégiens, espagnols etc), anciens ou récents, m'étaient inconnus et sont à l'honneur dans ma liste. Cette version est arrêtée au 18 décembre 2023. Par rapport à la version d'il y a 1 an, elle comprend environs 6 pages de plus. Cependant tout n'y est pas tant le sujet est vaste. S'il y a des références que vous connaissez et qui n'y sont pas n'hésitez pas à me le dire.

Following the publication of the Dictionary of Privateers and Pirates as well as the History of Privateers and Pirates under the direction of Philippe Hrodej and Gilbert Buti, in 2013 and 2016, I decided to continue the work of bibliography because many foreign works (Turkish, Portuguese, Danish, Norwegian, Spanish etc.), old or recent, were unknown to me and are honored in my list. This version is stopped on December 18, 2023. Compared to the version of 1 year ago, it includes around 6 more pages. However, everything is not there as the subject is vast. If there are any references that you know who are not hesitate to tell me.

Nesta dissertação pretendemos estudar o funcionamento e as dinâmicas
portuárias de Cascais durante a expansão marítima portuguesa Quatrocentista, altura em que esta vila já se distinguia como centro económico exportador de um pequeno
hinterland onde se destacavam as produções provenientes de Colares e de Sintra.
Será dada especial atenção às vertentes de apoio à navegação e defesa costeira.
Neste sentido, e face às condicionantes geográficas, veremos as águas de Cascais como escala quase que obrigatória para todo o movimento marítimo com destino a Lisboa e o seu território como parte integrante de um complexo defensivo que se estendia de Sintra até à capital do Reino, o qual terá começado a ganhar forma durante o período de ocupação islâmica da Península Ibérica.

In this dissertation we intend to study the working methods and dynamics of the port of Cascais throughout the maritime expansion of the fifteenth century, when this community was the economic and trade centre of a small hinterland with most of the output coming from the region of Colares and Sintra.
Special attention will be given to the navigation support and coastal defence dimensions. In this sense, and in view of the geographical constraints, we will see Cascais waters as a mandatory stopover for all maritime motion with destination to Lisbon and its territory as a part of a defensive complex that extended itself from Sintra to the capital of the Kingdom, which had started to take shape during the Islamic occupation of the Iberian Peninsula.

Bu makalede Osmanlı korsanlığının, özellikle Türkçe literatürün küffara karşı yapılan basit bir din savaşına indirgediği bir gaza kavramı yerine, Akdeniz tarihinin genel ritimleri içerisinde ele almanın önemine dikkat çekmeye calıştım. Akdenizin genelinde görülen bir fenomeni Osmanlı Tarihi’ne has kavramlarla açıklamaktansa, tarihçi Müslüman ve Hristiyan bütün korsan grupları arasındaki benzerlikleri ve Akdeniz’de korsanlığa elverişli şartlar yaratan yapısal faktörleri mercek altına almaya çalışmalıdır. Kısacası, bu korsanların motivasyonlarını, geçmişlerini ve faaliyetlerini titizlikle incelediğimizde, bunların din aşkıyla yanan kutsal savaşçılar olarak yansıtamayacağımızı görmekteyiz. Tam aksine, Osmanlılar, İspanyollar, Müslümanlar ve Hırıstiyanlar’dan çok önceleri de var olan ve ancak Akdeniz’de olgunlaşıp mükemmelleştirildikten sonra Okyanus’lara ithal edilen İç Deniz’in şu kadim mesleği ile uğraşan bu korsanlar her halükarda kendi çıkarlarını gözeten özel girişimçilerden başka bir şey değillerdi.

OTTOMAN CORSO IN THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND THE ISSUE OF GHAZA
In this essay, I tried to accentuate the importance of analyzing Ottoman corso in accordance with the general rhythms of the Mediterranean History, rather than within the context of ghaza, a concept that especially Turkish historiography reduced to a Holy War against the infidel. Instead of trying to explain a Mediterranean-wide phenomenon with concepts unique to Ottoman history, the historian should seek to focus on the similarities between different corsair groups on either side of the Mediterranean conflict between Christianity and Islam as well as structural factors that promoted corso throughout the Mediterranean. In short, a thorough analysis of these corsairs’ motivations, background and activities does not justify their presentation as holy warriors driven by religious zeal. Instead, they were private entrepreneurs who sought self betterment at all cost and engaged in this ancient profession of the Mare Nostrum that existed long before the Ottomans, Spaniards, Muslims or Christians, a profession which matured and was perfected in the Mediterranean before having been exported to the oceans.

"The article revisits the “Santa Catarina incident”, the famous episode of the first Portuguese ship captured by the Dutch in Asian waters, placing it within the broader context of Luso-Dutch rivalry in the Malay world, particularly the Straits of Singapore and Malacca. Through a careful analysis of European sources, the author assesses the broader consequences of this event and the ensuing international implications. After 1603, the VOC directors and the regents of the Dutch Republic were alerted to how profitable the policy of freebooting and despoiling the enemy could be, while the Portuguese authorities of the Estado da Índia became aware of their vulnerability in the face of geographical constraints. There is also a discussion of the legal defence of the Dutch interests as presented by Hugo Grotius, the Dutch jurist who has frequently been upheld as the “father of modern international law”. What becomes very transparent in the course of the present account is how important the Macao merchants really were to the Estado da Índia, how far their networks of trade spanned deep into Southeast Asia, and how, despite suffering a number of severe setbacks as a result of VOC freebooting activities, they managed to recuperate from these blows with amazing agility and perseverance.

You can download this paper from
http://www.icm.gov.mo/RC/TextPE.asp?No=11&ID=555"

This dissertation examines the relationship between the expansion of the English colony of Jamaica and the rapid growth of maritime piracy in the second half of the seventeenth century. The work re-examines the way in which the growing political, economic and strategic importance of Jamaica as the Crown Colony had corresponded with pirate raids. It extends the area of this subject by the implementation of the complex framework of relations between influential members involved in Jamaican colonial administration and prominent individuals of pirate crews. Hence, one of the central claims of this research is that pirates in seventeenth century functioned as the integral element of British imperial endeavours. Moreover, this study argues that seventeenth-century pirates played a significant role in connecting Britain's empires in the Americas and India by forcing London authorities to impose its central policy on colonies and abandon the concept of decentralised imperial state.
While there is wide agreement that “the pirate economy” of Jamaica was replaced by the business of plantation, there is less consensus over whether or not the dominance of plantocracy was achieved through legal and ethical means. Extensive research of primary sources has shown that the hegemony of planter's class was rather the outcome of a cunning strategy of land acquisitions accomplished by privileged Assembly representatives such as Thomas Lynch, Peter Beckford or William Beeston. This research drawing on deep analysis of archival sources argues that generations of buccaneers were intentionally driven out of Jamaica by the clique of local representatives of planter’s class led by Thomas Lynch. Thus, this work seeks to clarify the nature of the transformation of Jamaican society by the end of seventeenth century, which should not be perceived as smooth and natural development.
Rather, it should be understood in terms of organised and forced replacement of one class of people with a different class of people, which was more fitting for the whole colonial project. Nevertheless, this research based on archival sources, published manuscripts and judicious use of contemporary sources claims that the abandonment of piratical activities was ill-timed and exposed The British West Indies to significant defensive risks.
The dissertation is comprised of five chapters covering five decades of Jamaica's colonial development with an emphasis on three distinct generations yet equally successful piratical societies enjoying endorsement, support, sponsorship or protection by Jamaican colonists. Chapter one looks at the aftermath of the failed Western Design in the Caribbean, expeditions led by Christopher Myngs and the first wave of buccaneers settling down in Port Royal. The second chapter is dedicated to the era of Henry Morgan and his infamous attacks on Spanish colonies. Further, the chapter investigates the establishment of the semi-legal web of interconnected communities of pirates, smugglers, wreckers and “baymen”. Chapter three considers the nature of the second wave of buccaneering framed by voyages of William Dampier, Bartholomew Sharp and John Coxon. Also, this part comments on the status of indentured servants and the turbulent changes in the composition of Jamaican society. The period of two competing Jamaican political factions of planters and merchants is discussed in the chapter four. Additionally, this section deals with the consequences of the Glorious Revolution (1688) for Jamaica, and it clarifies the link between Tories, Whigs and pirates. The key factors of Jamaica's influence behind the rise of the Red Round piracy are outlined in chapter five It also details the clash of different colonial interests epitomised by numerous conflicts between colonial authorities and the Royal Navy and discusses the impacts of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). The last section takes the reader to the brink of the War of the Spanish Succession and re-examines the importance of legal changes emphasised by The
Piracy Act passed by the Parliament of England in 1698. Each chapter provides the reader important contextual information about relevant political, cultural, social, and military events like for instance the Anglo-Dutch Wars or the Nine Years' War.

In this thesis we studies the role played by the Hispanix-American insurgent privateers in the wars of independence os Spanish America. Their actions took to them beyond american territorial waters and presnts in the peninsular coasts became, with special incidence in the Gulf of Cadiz. This study also analyzes the reach of the privateering activities in the two differentiated planes affluent. From one it leaves the plane political, since most of these privateers although under protection of acted the flags of the rising republics, were in this majority of north american origin, his actions could thus serve like incentive in the negotiations between Spain and the United States for the cession as Florida, becoming currency of change for the greater or smaller success of the treaty Onis-Adams. Of another part, in a purely warlike plane, the actions of these privateers to a great extent contributed to make difficult to the land actions of the spanish armies in America, acting like units of outpost and intelligence. However, the main contribution of these privateers to the final success of the independentistas ones came given by the almost total paralyzation from the transoceanic commercial traffic coming from Spain and incipiente the blockade exerted on the Spanish ports, mainly Cadiz and those of the Canary Islands

Juan Miranda, un cartagenero de condición libre, padeció esclavitud en Nueva York en el siglo XVIII. Aun adolescente, enfurecidos corsarios de Curazao lo atraparon en un navío en la costa de Venezuela hacia 1733. Miranda estuvo preso en la isla neerlandesa; pero un capitán inglés lo sacó del encierro y, con falsas promesas, lo condujo a Nueva York. Con trucos y disimulos, resultó esclavizado en la urbe. A los veinte años de esclavitud, se atrevió a reclamar su libertad con el apoyo del británico William Kempe, el nuevo fiscal general de la provincia de Nueva York. Los Van Ranst, propietarios de Miranda, se empecinaron en negarle, en cada instancia, la libertad reclamada. Los hechos que marcaron a Miranda, incluyendo el terror que enfrentó durante el supuesto “Gran complot de los negros” de 1741, permite entrever las vidas y las luchas de otros hispanocaribeños o Spanish Negroes: hombres capturados de barcos de las colonias españolas y, por el color de la piel, vendidos como esclavos en Nueva York. Este es el primer libro, escrito en cualquier lengua, sobre el tema de los Spanish Negros o "negros españoles", presas hispanas de los corsarios neoyorkinos.

Juan Miranda, a free man from Cartagena de Indias, suffered slavery in New York in the eighteenth century. While still a teenager, enraged privateers from Curaçao captured him on a ship off Venezuela around 1733. Miranda was imprisoned on the Dutch island, but an English captain took him out of prison and, with false promises, led him to New York. With tricks and disguises, he was enslaved in the city. Finally, after twenty years of slavery, he dared to claim his freedom with the support of the British William Kempe, the new attorney general of the province of New York. However, the Van Rants, owners of Miranda, insisted on denying him, in every instance, the freedom he claimed. The events that marked Miranda, including the terror he faced during the alleged "Great Negro Plot" of 1741, provide a glimpse into the lives and struggles of other Hispano-Caribbeans or Spanish Negroes: men captured from ships of the Spanish colonies and, because of the color of their skin, sold as slaves in New York. This book is the first, written in any language, on the "negros españoles" or "Spanish Negroes", Spanish-speaking prisoners of the New York privateers in the Caribbean, before, during, and after the War of Jenkins's Ear between England and Spain.

This paper evaluate the role of navies and privateering in international relations in the XVI and XVIIth centuries. Before the formation of international naval law, state accredited English, Dutch and Ottoman corsairs carried out naval operations world-wide. There was both written and unwritten legal rules regarding the activities of privateers. They were provided a diploma or certificate to perform corsair activities at high seas. In case of exploiting permission, they were declared illegal, and generally punished with execution. When the navies became powerful in time, governments searched for solutions to get rid of these private groups. the paper is concluded with samples of Ottoman documents regarding the regulations of naval law and corsair activities in the Mediterranean.

This article considers the impact of English seizure of neutral Swedish vessels during the First Anglo-Dutch War, 1651–4. These actions were undertaken at a time when no bilateral diplomatic treaty existed between the two nations and thus the legal basis for such prize-taking was hotly disputed on both sides. Through an examination of extant sources in both England and Sweden, the article scrutinises a number of case studies in a period where the concept of any  meaningful international maritime law remained primitive. It concludes with a review of the
diplomatic machinations which sought to recover ships, goods or compensation in the years following the conclusion of the war.

Abstract
The stability of the international trade depends upon the security
given to the merchants in the high seas since the most part of the
international commercial transportation is made by sea. To this end,
the crime of piracy is a big threat. However, the unique international community’s attempts (working together) to repress it does
not seem to work. When it is compared the risk involved in piracy
with the profit gained by the pirates, it seems that taking the risk of
easy-wealth will never fade away unless efficient reputable policies
are recognized by the international society. Bring pirates to justice
therefore may close the large and growing impunity gap for piracy.
This article examines the piracy in international law (piracy jure
gentium). Responses given by the international community as measures to secure the international maritime commerce take place.
Security issues are mentioned from the angle of international efforts
given to combat piracy. To this end, the present combat against Somali pirates is given as a case study. It is clear that international law
gives priority to the coastal State to deal with the pirates entering
into their territorial waters as a result of sovereignty. However, if the
coastal State has no capacity to deal with the situation there is a
blank area of international law, viz., how to treat the case? It is assumed that general knowledge and a case study would open a gate
to provide a solid answer to the crime of piracy. However, it soon
became clear that a universal and a general answer to all situations cannot be given because of constraints involved in international law.

Key Words: Hot Pursuit, Sea Piracy, Privateering, Piracy off the coast of Somali, Failing State and Piracy, Security in the High Seas,
International Cooperation, and Piracy Jure Gentium.

Özet
Uluslararası ticaretin büyük bir kısmı deniz taşımacılığı yoluyla yapıldığından uluslararası ticaretin istikrarı denizlerde tüccarlara verilen
güvenliğe bağlıdır. Bu bağlamda, deniz haydutluğu suçu büyük bir
tehdit oluşturuyor. Ancak, bunu bastırmak için uluslararası toplumun
eşsiz girişimlerinin (birlikte çalışma) yeterli olduğu görünmüyor. Deniz haydutları tarafından elde edilen gelir ile ilgili riski karşılaştırıldığında, görünen o ki uluslararası toplumca saygın ve etkili politikalar
tanınmadıkça kolay elde etmeye yönelik riskin üstlenilmesinin ortadan kalkacağı asla imkan dahilinde gözükmüyor. Bu nedenle deniz
haydutlarını adalete teslim etmek büyük ve büyüyen bir cezasızlık
açığını kapatabilir.
Bu makale, uluslararası hukukta deniz haydutluğunu (piracy jure
gentium) inceler. Uluslararası toplum tarafından uluslararası deniz
ticaretini güvence altına almak için ortaya konan yanıtlar konu edinilmiştir. Deniz haydutluğuyla mücadele için verilen uluslararası çabalar açısından güvenlik sorunlarından söz edilmektedir. Bu amaçla,
Somalili deniz haydutlarına karşı mevcut mücadele, bir vaka çalışması olarak ele alınmaktadır. Uluslararası hukukun sahildar devlete
egemenliğin bir sonucu olarak kendi karasularına giren deniz haydutlarıyla başa çıkmak için öncelik verdiği açıktır. Ancak, sahildar
devletin bu durumla başa çıkacak kapasiteye sahip değilse ortada
uluslararası hukukun izahtan yoksun bir alanı mevcuttur, bu alan
konunun nasıl çözüleceğidir. Genel bilgi ve örnek olay çalışmasının
deniz haydutluğu suçunun çözümü için sağlam bir cevap vermeye
yönelik bir kapıyı açacağı düşünülmüştür. Ancak, çalışma sonucunda görüldü ki, uluslararası hukukta yer alan kısıtlamalar nedeniyle
her olaya uygulanabilecek evrensel bir cevap verilemeyeceği ortaya
çıkmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Sıcak Takip, Deniz Haydutluğu, Somali Kıyılarındaki Deniz Haydutluğu, Başarısız Devlet ve Deniz Haydutluğu, Açık
Denizlerde Güvenlik, Uluslararası Birliktelik, ve Piracy Jure Gentium

This article analyses French privateering in relation with the carreira da Índia, in the first half of the sixteenth-century. Deriving its argument from a wide array of differing sources, it is shown that Portuguese vessels sailing from India were a primary target for the French, in a scope not always fully grasped by traditional historiography. In fact, long before the 1580s, Portuguese ships loaded with spices faced an organized network of enemies, which acted on intelligence collected by espionage networks operating within Portugal.

Panel 8.3: Mobility and Communication between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic at the End of the  Middle Ages

Organiser: Inazio Conde Mendoza, Universidad de Cantabria
Chair: Roser Salicrú i Lluch, IMF-CSIC Barcelona
Discussant: José Damián González Arce, Universidad de Murcia

- Francesco Guidi Bruscoli, University of Florence:
From the Mediterranean to the North Sea: Italian Merchants in England in the Late Middle Ages
- Inazio Conde Mendoza, Universidad de Cantabria:
Basque Skippers on the Route to Pisa (15th – 16th centuries)
- Jesús Á. Solórzano Telechea, Universidad de Cantabria:
From the Mediterranean to the Labrador Peninsula (and beyond): trade, fisheries and privateering of the Cantabrian Ports (1452-1552)

This paper looks at the British attack on the American privateer "General Armstrong" in September 1814 in Faial Harbor in the Azores.  While the Royal Navy successfully destroyed the brig, it suffered horrific casualties in so doing.  American writers, poets, painters and others seized on this event to create an iconography celebrating privateering as a viable form of naval warfare in the early republic.