Martin Mares

This work analyses the public perception of the role of privateers and their transition to pirates and examines both negative and positive outcomes in various areas like diplomacy, international trade, legal, racial and gender issues. The entire topic is examined through various cases of pirates including Bartholomew Roberts, Sir Henry Morgan, Thomas Tew, William Kid, Jack Rackham, Stede Bonnet, Edward Teach, Samuel Bellamy, Mary Read, Anne Bony or Henry Avery as well as historical records including letters, trials and pamphlets. Further, this essay discusses an interesting development of piracy from state-funded expeditions into utterly illegal activity driven by various reasons. Particularly the transition between legal, semi-legal and illicit separates England and Great Britain (from 1707 onwards) from other colonial powers such as France, Spain or Dutch. Despite the fact that they all issued privateering licenses and therefore they had to face similar problems connected to privateering, the outburst of piracy in the case of England was so dangerous that England (Great Britain) during the late 17th and early 18th century was called a “nation of pirates”. Hence, this work analyses both legal and practical actions against pirates in British colonies and their effectiveness after 1715. The last part of this essay is dedicated to piracy regarding an alternative way of life for disadvantaged social groups in the 17th and 18th century and contemporary negative or positive portrayal of piracy. The role of liberated “Negroe” and “Mullato” slaves is also examined throu

This dissertation examines the relationship between the expansion of the English colony of Jamaica and the rapid growth of maritime piracy in the second half of the seventeenth century. The work re-examines the way in which the growing political, economic and strategic importance of Jamaica as the Crown Colony had corresponded with pirate raids. It extends the area of this subject by the implementation of the complex framework of relations between influential members involved in Jamaican colonial administration and prominent individuals of pirate crews. Hence, one of the central claims of this research is that pirates in seventeenth century functioned as the integral element of British imperial endeavours. Moreover, this study argues that seventeenth-century pirates played a significant role in connecting Britain's empires in the Americas and India by forcing London authorities to impose its central policy on colonies and abandon the concept of decentralised imperial state.
While there is wide agreement that “the pirate economy” of Jamaica was replaced by the business of plantation, there is less consensus over whether or not the dominance of plantocracy was achieved through legal and ethical means. Extensive research of primary sources has shown that the hegemony of planter's class was rather the outcome of a cunning strategy of land acquisitions accomplished by privileged Assembly representatives such as Thomas Lynch, Peter Beckford or William Beeston. This research drawing on deep analysis of archival sources argues that generations of buccaneers were intentionally driven out of Jamaica by the clique of local representatives of planter’s class led by Thomas Lynch. Thus, this work seeks to clarify the nature of the transformation of Jamaican society by the end of seventeenth century, which should not be perceived as smooth and natural development.
Rather, it should be understood in terms of organised and forced replacement of one class of people with a different class of people, which was more fitting for the whole colonial project. Nevertheless, this research based on archival sources, published manuscripts and judicious use of contemporary sources claims that the abandonment of piratical activities was ill-timed and exposed The British West Indies to significant defensive risks.
The dissertation is comprised of five chapters covering five decades of Jamaica's colonial development with an emphasis on three distinct generations yet equally successful piratical societies enjoying endorsement, support, sponsorship or protection by Jamaican colonists. Chapter one looks at the aftermath of the failed Western Design in the Caribbean, expeditions led by Christopher Myngs and the first wave of buccaneers settling down in Port Royal. The second chapter is dedicated to the era of Henry Morgan and his infamous attacks on Spanish colonies. Further, the chapter investigates the establishment of the semi-legal web of interconnected communities of pirates, smugglers, wreckers and “baymen”. Chapter three considers the nature of the second wave of buccaneering framed by voyages of William Dampier, Bartholomew Sharp and John Coxon. Also, this part comments on the status of indentured servants and the turbulent changes in the composition of Jamaican society. The period of two competing Jamaican political factions of planters and merchants is discussed in the chapter four. Additionally, this section deals with the consequences of the Glorious Revolution (1688) for Jamaica, and it clarifies the link between Tories, Whigs and pirates. The key factors of Jamaica's influence behind the rise of the Red Round piracy are outlined in chapter five It also details the clash of different colonial interests epitomised by numerous conflicts between colonial authorities and the Royal Navy and discusses the impacts of the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). The last section takes the reader to the brink of the War of the Spanish Succession and re-examines the importance of legal changes emphasised by The
Piracy Act passed by the Parliament of England in 1698. Each chapter provides the reader important contextual information about relevant political, cultural, social, and military events like for instance the Anglo-Dutch Wars or the Nine Years' War.

This article contrasts and compares the romance and the reality regarding ancient piracy, drawing on writings of Herodotus, Homer, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch. The essential part of this paper is a juxtaposition of romanticised image perpetuated by classical authors such as Homer or Plutarch with the historical records of piratical life in antiquity. Moreover, Ormerod's pivotal work Piracy in the Ancient World is re-evaluated...

This paper aims to explore James Hunt's role in the rehabilitation of Dr Robert Knox's diminished reputation by a careful choice of Knox's original theories from his "The Races of Men" (1860) to establish an ideological underpinning for political agenda of Anthropological Society of London (1863-1871). Yet, at the same time, Hunt had become empowered with the reliable tool to oppose Thomas Huxley, and his fellow Darwinists' efforts to homogenise mid-Victorian Anthropology under the banner of Darwinism. That said, Hunt had to pay the steep price for such accomplishment since he had to de-radicalise core elements of Knox's racialist vision. In doing so, Hunt's orchestrated resurrection of a modified version of Knox's writings helped him to smuggle a cunningly significant number of both Knox's original and recontextualised racialist elements into a discipline of Social Darwinism. Hence, the legacy of James Hunt should not be underestimated and dismissed as a marginal contribution to further development of racism in following two decades after his death. Additionally, the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how James Hunt managed to disseminate and bring into the foreground the racial theories pioneered by Robert Knox. The central goal of this paper is to analyse the process of Hunt’s intentional manipulation with original ideas developed by Robert Knox to shape them for Hunt's political purposes and consequent popularisation of an expanded corpus of racialist theory. We shall begin with a brief introduction to Robert Knox, who indeed inspired James Hunt to popularise racist views in mid-Victorian society, though Hunt later modified Knoxian racial doctrine rather unfaithfully to the original theory. In this way, this work analyses Hunt’s transition from Knox’s admirer to a populariser of broader racist doctrine including not only Knox's views but elements of racial theories of Paul Broca, George Gliddon, Samuel Morton and Josiah Nott as well. In this context,  the final part of the paper follows Hunt's shift from the populariser of virulent racist ideas to a wily political manipulator, who shaped his condensed racist beliefs and methods in accordance with tightening British colonial policy to pass down an ultimate racist underpinning for an emerging wave of a new ideology characterised by an uncompromising imperialism.

This paper examines the meaning and connectedness of Kleos (eternal glory, fame), Nostos (homecoming, heroic return) and Ponos (toil, ordeal, pain) in various myths from the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Epic Cycle. Despite being essential to the analysing cultural significance of Homeric tradition, folklore feels disconnected from initial manifestations of heroic stories. We can say that such an unfortunate outcome is caused by the popularity of non-poetic narratives that have been created by numerous writers to bring the coherent plot into the foreground. This approach might be a comprehensible presentation of the story, though such versions lack the essence of imprinting heroic deeds into epic poems by earning Kleos and sustaining heroes' Kleos by repeated performance. Thus, this essay explores the significance of Kleos, nostos and Ponos within the Homeric tradition and suggests that we should abandon a canonical way of reading these virtues because such approach does not correspond with original myths that had been passed down from generation to generation. For this purpose, above-mentioned heroic virtues will be demonstrated on examples of Odysseus, Diomedes, Telemonian Ajax, Neoptolemus and with emphasis on Achilles – the epitome of Kleos. Moreover, popular adherence to " multi-volume " way of reading the Trojan War will be re-evaluated by juxtaposing Homer's works and the Epic Cycle to locate distinct traditions regarding Kleos, Nostos and Ponos.

(Forthcoming) This paper analyses the importance of Pirate English in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries through lenses of contemporary linguistic theories and retrospective research provided by studies in Creole cultures of Caribbean. Since, history and historiography of the Golden of the Piracy are predominantly focused on maritime, radical, military or colonial context; this works to enhance and enrich corpus of larger pirate studies with a linguistic theory analysis of a crucial element holding pirate crewmen together - Pirate English. The general expectation of this research is related to the idea that historically marginalised importance of Pirate English does not automatically discourage us from the exploration of this phenomenon from the linguistics point of views. Furthermore, Pirate English should not be overlooked by contemporary studies dealing with semiotic landscape, symbolism and communication, since it can provide us with much needed historical evidence about diverse maritime speech community and how their use of the language reflected the diversity of its members. Glossary of 17th/18th nautical terms will be provided. Pirate English and its analysis is based on contemporary sources dealing with "mediation of language" (Michael Stubbs), "semiotic landscape" (Kress & Leuwen), "communication and cognition" (Sperber & Wilson). Relevant scholars and publications related to the problematics of the Creole culture and linguistics such as John Holm or Peter Bekker will be discussed as well. Hence, the paper should produce a synthesis of contemporary linguistic concepts applied judiciously to historical records and explored through relevant socio-historical or cultural studies.

His name refers to the clothing he used to wear. Lodbrok can be translated as "hairy pants". It can be said that he was a king of Sweden and Denmark, according to the Gesta Danorum, written by Saxo Grammaticus, between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Ragnar would have been the son of Sigurd Ring, a Swedish king who conquered Denmark, a member of the Ynglings lineage, to which legendary deeds were always attributed to the Sagas, as well as, as stated above, a direct link with Odin himself.
Ragnar is believed to have plundered France many times, using the rivers to sail with his fleet to the heart of the Franco empire. Sources report that in his most notable onslaught during the year 845, he did not burn a single house since he accepted the bribe of King Charles the Bald, who paid him over 7,000 pounds of silver. With the fleet of over 5000 warriors, Ragnar set out for the Siena River estuary, plundering every city he could find on his way, including Rouen until he finally arrived in Paris on March 28 according to tradition. Faced with the ease of plundering the city beaucuse the king himself bribed him with an incredibly generous amount of silver, it is not difficult to imagine why he returned to France again and again.
Being an ingenious man, Ragnar preferred to attack Christian cities on the day of greatest festivities, so that he would find the population unprotected and unprepared for a lightning and unstoppable attack. Ever since he felt the taste of conquest, he never stopped, leading a very successful life of "piracy."
When he turned his attention to England, Ragnar found his end. After looting to the region, he was eventually captured by King Aelle of Northumbria, who ordered his execution by throwing him into a pit full of venomous snakes. According to legend, Ragnar fought as he could with poisonous snakes in an attempt to still merit his place in Valhalla. Even swollen and beaten by the venom of the serpents, he sang and begged that the winds in the north would bring his appeal to his children. This song is known as Krákumál and was probably created in the 12th century, where Ragnar claimed a vengeance of blood, the only way for his poisoned soul to deserve Valhalla. Ivar "The Boneless" and Ubbe, both Ragnar's sons, set out for revenge as soon as they heard the story. Composing an immense group of warriors (now called the "Great Heathen Army"), they set out for Northumbria, where they succeeded in avenging Ragnar, subjecting King Aelle to the execution of the Blood Eagle, a terrible ritual reserved for the greatest enemies of the northern people.
Despite being considered almost as the mythical hero in his native Scandinavia, the reliable accounts of his life are only sketches, mainly based on ancient sagas of the Vikings. Even the dating of his kingdom is uncertain: sources are dating from 750 to 794, while others date him from 860 to 865. Neither period confers on what is known about him: he is likely to have had power As a warrior baron from about 835 until his death in 865. He was probably only considered king in the last five years of his life.

This paper analyses three different films representing attempts of the film industry to portray people in the process of re-establishment of the healthy relationship with the nature and their quest for “ecological self” juxtaposing it with a Freudian definition of civilisation as a defence against nature. It is crucial to mention that movies such as Dersu Uzala, Medicine Man and Take Shelter serve as an explication of cultural myths related to eras of the 1970s, 1990s and 2000s in relation with corresponding real-life worsening of environmental crisis and reflecting psychological impacts of climate change. The analysis demonstrates how this marginal genre as opposes to various apocalyptic and dystopian movies develops from a dialogue of opposing forces of the civilisation and the nature into a sphere of an intimate dialogue within our minds to overcome psychological defence mechanisms and recognise the reality of environmental crisis.

Typically, the language is inevitably linked with nationalism and nation-building since the times of Herder and his broader idea of Volkgeist. In fact, the language occupies a prominent position in unifying specific territories and creation of unique National identity distinct from old colonial powers during the 19 th and 20 th centuries. Prior research has suggested that the language and nationalism have been rather a problematic connection in a case of Brazil compared to, e.g. establishment of Webster's standardised American English in the mid-19 th century. Brazilian independence in 1822 was followed by apparent hostility towards the former colonial power and European version of Portuguese as well. During the age of the " Empire of Brazil " (1822-1889), Portuguese had been both loved and hated due to the potential of unifying the vast and diverse country, but it also reminded people of their unfortunate colonial history. In later 1860s, the first generation of Brazilian scholars had tried reform European version of Portuguese in order create unique distinct and unique Brazilian version. Sadly, an enormous number of dialects, sociolects and borrowings from African and various European languages such as English, German, Spanish or French prevented contemporary linguistics to follow Webster's example, to create a standardised form of Brazilian Portuguese, as Webster has accomplished in a case of the first dictionary of American English. Moreover, the number of illiterate Brazilians around the 1850s according to Rosana Barbosa revolved around 34% in relatively well-developed coastal areas such Salvador, Rio de Janeiro, Recife or Fortaleza, while rural areas like Minas Gerais or Paraná indicated even higher numbers exceeding 40%. Conversely, the language was the only shared value by multicultural, multi-ethnic and diverse inhabitants of Brazil. It is quite clear that indigenous people, Amazonian tribes and Bushmen were first to suffer the exploitation and unfair treatment due to the fact that they spoke different languages than Portuguese. Hence, the inability of indigenous people to learn Portuguese swiftly pushed them into groups of maladjusted minorities. Likewise, cultural discrimination and economic exploitation of indigenous people had remained the great controversy even to this date. Despite the 1988 proclamation, which recognised people's right to pursue the traditional ways of life, dozens of languages such as, e.g. Gamela, Aikaná, Coeruna, Huamóe Baenan or Kapixaná have died out according to APIB (Brazilian indigenous people association) survey from 2012. That said, The Government of Brazil is usually criticised by activists from Amazonia Watch for indifference and disregard to solve discrimination of speakers of different languages than Portuguese. However, the resentment towards indigenous languages can be understood through the notion of the stereotypical image of "backwardness" of indigenous people, intermixed races and liberated slaves, which was widely adopted by leading Anthropologists during the 1860s. Hence, the Brazilians symbolically decided to cut links to both pre-colonial and colonial ages, and in turn, they subscribed themselves to Brazilian national motto: "Ordem e Progresso " (The order

Six months has passed from the EU Referendum and so called "Brexit". Brexit and its impacts seem to be everywhere, though this paper intends to produce a fresh, unique and hopefully meaningful contribution to the larger field of post-Brexit scholarly works. This paper analyses different styles of propaganda, discourse and power related to the use of the language before and after British Referendum, particularly about London. More specifically, this work aims to uncover reasons why London differs with 59,9% votes for Remain in comparison with overall British results 52% in favour of Leave.  The entire topic is explored through instruments of discourse, power and propaganda with particularly strong emphasis on using the argument about immigration and struggle with EU policies as major arguments for Leave. Why did Brexit split the United Kingdom by bare 52% into two halves? Why do many Londoners see the decision to leave EU based on the results of Referendum as ‘pseudo-democracy '? How is it possible that strong anti-immigrants’ propaganda popularised mostly by ex-UKIP leader Nigel Farage did not manage to influence Londoners as much as other parts of Britain, even though the greatest number of immigrants and foreigners lives in London? This work will try to identify and explain this oddity through the critical analysis of the language that surrounded British Referendum and how it managed to produce significantly different results in London compared to the overall results.
Furthermore, this paper try to explain why British citizens living in London responded negatively to UKIP's strong anti-immigration propaganda how it is connected to identify and resists propaganda or fallacies. Hopefully, this work will be able to clarify London's pitiful, but important role in the transformation of vertical power into horizontal control. This analysis has been develop by application of concepts of discourse and power introduced by Teun van Dijk, Lakoff's theory political mind and Mooney's works on language, politics and power. Foucault's idea about Parrhesia and rhetoric’s texts by Aristotle and Plato should be discussed as well in the context of the Brexit Referendum campaigns and their moral outcome. Additional scholars such as Ossewarde and Fishman will be used to provide theoretical underpinning. Abovementioned theories and concepts will be applied to the Brexit campaign and why specific rhetoric techniques and tools of propaganda succeeded or failed in London and how the discourse affected and shaped various London boroughs and communities. Moreover, both Remain and Leave campaigns will be analysed with particular emphasis on rhetoric styles, forms, genres and mind control of Londoners.

This work analyses the public perception of the role of privateers and their transition to pirates and examines both negative and positive outcomes in various areas like diplomacy, international trade, legal, racial and gender issues. The entire topic is examined through various cases of pirates including Bartholomew Roberts, Sir Henry Morgan, Thomas Tew, William Kid, Jack Rackham, Stede Bonnet, Edward Teach, Samuel Bellamy, Mary Read, Anne Bony or Henry Avery as well as historical records including letters, trials and pamphlets. Further, this essay discusses an interesting development of piracy from state-funded expeditions into utterly illegal activity driven by various reasons. Particularly the transition between legal, semi-legal and illicit separates England and Great Britain (from 1707 onwards) from other colonial powers such as France, Spain or Dutch. Despite the fact that they all issued privateering licenses and therefore they had to face similar problems connected to privateering, the outburst of piracy in the case of England was so dangerous that England (Great Britain) during the late 17th and early 18th century was called a “nation of pirates”. Hence, this work analyses both legal and practical actions against pirates in British colonies and their effectiveness after 1715. The last part of this essay is dedicated to piracy regarding an alternative way of life for disadvantaged social groups in the 17th and 18th century and contemporary negative or positive portrayal of piracy. The role of liberated “Negroe” and “Mullato” slaves is also examined throu

This paper aims to explore James Hunt's role in the rehabilitation of Dr Robert Knox's diminished reputation by a careful choice of Knox's original theories from his "The Races of Men" (1860) to establish an ideological underpinning for political agenda of Anthropological Society of London (1863-1871). Yet, at the same time, Hunt had become empowered with the reliable tool to oppose Thomas Huxley, and his fellow Darwinists' efforts to homogenise mid-Victorian Anthropology under the banner of Darwinism. That said, Hunt had to pay the steep price for such accomplishment since he had to de-radicalise core elements of Knox's racialist vision. In doing so, Hunt's orchestrated resurrection of a modified version of Knox's writings helped him to smuggle a cunningly significant number of both Knox's original and recontextualised racialist elements into a discipline of Social Darwinism. Hence, the legacy of James Hunt should not be underestimated and dismissed as a marginal contribution to further development of racism in following two decades after his death. Additionally, the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how James Hunt managed to disseminate and bring into the foreground the racial theories pioneered by Robert Knox. The central goal of this paper is to analyse the process of Hunt’s intentional manipulation with original ideas developed by Robert Knox to shape them for Hunt's political purposes and consequent popularisation of an expanded corpus of racialist theory. We shall begin with a brief introduction to Robert Knox, who indeed inspired James Hunt to popularise racist views in mid-Victorian society, though Hunt later modified Knoxian racial doctrine rather unfaithfully to the original theory. In this way, this work analyses Hunt’s transition from Knox’s admirer to a populariser of broader racist doctrine including not only Knox's views but elements of racial theories of Paul Broca, George Gliddon, Samuel Morton and Josiah Nott as well. In this context, the final part of the paper follows Hunt's shift from the populariser of virulent racist ideas to a wily political manipulator, who shaped his condensed racist beliefs and methods in accordance with tightening British colonial policy to pass down an ultimate racist underpinning for an emerging wave of a new ideology characterised by an uncompromising imperialism.

Let us start with a bold statement that it is necessary to realise that many ancient scholars provided us with the knowledge that has been far beyond our imagination for hundreds of years. I hold the view that contemporary culture starts to discover that ancient philosophy is not a discipline that belongs to old libraries, but it can be instead sifted through and used to implement specific concept into our post-modern world. In this paper, I will discuss the concept of education presented by three great philosophers and true masters of this wisdom-loving discipline. It would be undoubtedly beneficial to analyse the ideas of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in greater depth to figure out what might be useful for contemporary concepts of education. I will focus on the modern use of certain educational concepts in the second part of this essay, and therefore we should start with explanation and comparative analysis of these concepts as introduced by three great masters of classical philosophy – Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

One of the most essential elements helping to hold the society together is the phenomenon of the family as a basis of the functional state according to the Western and Judeo-Christian perception of functional and orderly society. Family stands undoubtedly for one of the main pillars of the contemporary society, though the meaning and significance of the concept of the family have undergone turbulent changes in most recent years. However, the contemporary family seems to be recognised as having the function not only for the society or interests of the community, but it has the function for members of such family per se. At the same time, a family still serves both as a life project and as an institution. In other words, a family is partially a product of spontaneous order, though the family also serves as an existential unit, which is defined and recognised by positive laws. Moreover, the family can also be described as a place, which is essential in its capacity to cultivate, reproduce and pass on important values and virtues. Contemporary values of the western society might be more culturally embedded and differ from country to country, though there are those such as freedom, equality, pluralism, materialism, rationality and individualism shared to some extent. Conversely, virtues are connected to philosophical concepts and seem to be universal and stable.

Since the Velvet revolution in 1989, Czech society has become vulnerable to all sorts of challenges of modern democracy and it has been clearly proved that besides corruption, Czech people struggle equally with racist and xenophobic reactions towards the Roma minority. In summary, the Roma has been forced to change their lifestyle from nomadic and seminomadic into the sedentary way of living during the Communist era in Czechoslovakia, though the rise of the capitalism in the 1990s and subsequent split with Slovakia resulted in even worse social and economic conditions for the Roma minority living in the Czech Republic. Thus a relationship between the Roma and white Czech citizens has been problematic since the 1990s after the fall of communist regime. Having established the brief overview and history of the Roma people's struggle, it is possible to race down roots of real- life obstacles that prevent the Roma to integrate themselves. However, it is complicated to understand the initial motivation to reproduce mostly negative texts and speeches full of stereotypical labels such as non-conformal, noisy, law-abiding, poor and dirty community, which is unable to live among white Czech citizens. Systematic creation of a homogenous and mostly negative image of the Roma is the primary tool to maintain cognitive control of Czech population. Following sections analyse critical discourse focused on the Roma topic from various angles including micro-analyses based on an evaluation of questionnaires and macro- analysis of the broader context in fields of socio-cultural space, access, power, media and politics.