Classical Greek Philosophy

The establishment of reason as the primordial source of force for better existence by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle was a significant contribution to humanity. Their emphasis on intelligence as a path of analysis that leads to empirically accurate and profound knowledge has had a profound impact on future religious traditions.

Greek thought, with its concept of pure first order, influenced the polytheistic cults, eventually leading them towards a monolithic direction that later influenced Islamic and Christian monotheism.

Damascius’ Problems and Solutions Concerning
First Principles must be one of the most
remarkable philosophical texts written in late
antiquity. It is a tour de force of Neoplatonic
metaphysics which critically examines concepts
such as the causality of a first principle in relation
to the plurality that derives from it, the processes
of remaining, procession and reversion, and the
relationship between being and knowledge (and
much, much more). Readers of English are
fortunate that Ahbel-Rappe has undertaken the
colossal task of producing the first English translation
of this work.

This paper shows that the Greek term demokratia was invented around 430  BCE as a slogan in the conflict between Athens and Sparta. The term does not appear in official Athenian documents until 410 BCE or later. The ancient conception of democracy was not based on the idea of inalienable human rights because Greek society accepted the existence of slavery as a natural phenomenon.  It would therefore be a mistake to search for a social contract theory as the basis of the state in Greek philosophy.

Socrates, in his final statements to the Athenian jurors and crowd gathered before his impending execution, reveals himself to be playing a game much longer than the span of his trial, lifespan, or even those of his successors.

When faced with the verdict of guilty and the sentence of death, Socrates remains defiant towards his accusers and steadfast in his conviction of the righteousness of his activities.

Where previously in The Trial, Socrates gives the impression of a man averse or neutral to the prospect of death, at this stage, he turns the tables on his condemnation by insisting on the goodness of the fate that is soon to befall him, and the wretched vengeance no doubt awaiting his executioners (Plato 93, §39b-c.) Moreover, he claims that possibly the most splendid of fates may be in the wings for himself, as he may soon have the pleasure of congressing with the fabled heroes, demigods, and poets so revered in the Greek pantheon upon his descent into Hades (Plato 95-96, § 41a). These final proclamations do nothing to change what is coming for Socrates and clearly are not meant for this purpose. I contend, instead, that the last remarks made by Socrates at the tail-end of his trial demonstrate Socrates' keen understanding of the reverberations his speech can make through the generations and his undying commitment to teaching the way of the examined life to others. Though his light was soon to be extinguished, Socrates' immortal words remain with us because, in his last stand, he took care to ensure that they might be worth hearing. Upon receiving his death sentence, we get a Socrates who remains unapologetic as ever, consistent with his attitude throughout the trial. Reflecting on the defense speech he has given thus far and his unwillingness to do anything beneath himself in hopes of altering the course of the trial by appeals to emotion, he says "neither did I suppose that I should do anything unsuitable to a free man because of the danger, nor do I now regret that I made the defense speech like this: I much prefer to die having made my defense speech in this way than to live in that way" (Plato 93, § 38e.) Crucially, he points out here that death would be not merely

If the rich do not bestow gifts on the public do they lack the virtue of magnificence? Consequently do they not express the suitable level of generosity for their privileged position within society? I want to argue that the important role of lavish expenditure by the wealthy in civic life identified by ancient thinkers suggests that the failure to do so constitutes a serious failing in character. I will then analyse how the rich are failing as virtuous agents to act magnificent and how such conduct is having serious social impacts throughout the world. I will draw upon the philosophy of Aristotle and Dan Russell in the first section of this essay. Next I will analyse the perceptive account of comic social theorist Russell Brand who clearly conveys how magnificence must be exercised in society. In order to do this I will examine Mark Zuckerberg and his failings of magnificent acts and then turn to a novel collective act in New Zealand, which saw thousands of citizen’s band together in an act of magnificence. I will then further my investigation with the aim to clarify theories on the notion of magnificence as a virtue drawing on the figures of Cosimo de Medici, the philosopher Thomas Aquinas and the British poet Spenser. My evaluation will establish to what extent the listed individual’s may help us understand why magnificence is needed in modern society. Finally want to answer whether human society will be dependent forever on magnificent gestures of the wealthy or possibly if poor individuals can collectively exercise the virtue of magnificence.

The word arché, by which Jesus is in Col 1:18 described, is most often interpreted and translated as “beginning”. There are however hints that arché also bears connotations to arché defined as philosophical principle. It is supported by: 1) depiction of Jesus in Col 1:15-20 in categories appropriate for philosophical arché; 2) invocation in Col 2:8 of „philosophy according to the elements of the world” as a negative alternative for Christ; 3) the fact that, Paul possessed at minimum
elementary knowledge of Greek philosophy.

ANAXAGOREAN NOUS AND ΙTS ΑNALOGΙES
ΙN ORPHΙC COSMOLOGY
Ι. Ιntroduction. The Anaxagorean Thesis on Norrs. Anaxagoras argues that matter initially consisted of a mixture of inνisible materials, infinite in size and number. These materials werΘ the seed of all things; of al1 the natural things (animals and humans), of the various forces, and of the natural substances that were going to be produced. These sperms
were condensed to a united and solid mass, which preexisted i.e. before the formation of the cosmos. Everything that exists today is rooted in that preexisting mass, since, according to
Anaxagoras and Ρarmenid, <nothing iS born and nothing is Ιost>. The sperms ofthis mass, the sperms of all things οontain within themselγes the pοιentiαl (Εν δυναμει) of all material substances of the cosmos, because, <everything contains paπ of everything>. Αristotle later
named these speΙΙns as homoeomeri 6μoιoμερη = similar kinds), implying that they are fundamental, consisting of similar parts. This is the physical unit from which cosmogony started. Ιn a few things, however, Αnaxagoras introduces another factor; the mind = noιιs=Nous is a signifiοant factor in the cosmologic theory of Anaxagoras. Ιt is something ιvith self_sufficiency and independence, unmixed, thin and pure, omniscient and goveming all beings (οντα). Ιt acts upon eνerything and proνides the moving power. Ιt is responsible for the separation of things in cosmos, their hierarchy and order. But, aΙthough it penetrates (gets through) everything' does not coexist with everything' but onΙy in some, especially the beings.
The Anaxagorean notion of Νous needs further cΙarification. Questions which emerge include: a) has ly'oas a spiritual and transcendant meaning or is it a purely mechanistic quality,
b) where has Nous οomΘ from? As a consequence of the materialistic cosmos, or from outside the closed system of material mixture? Taking his exact wording, he states that <all things were initially together, then Noas came and ordered them>>. An observation immediately arises: does Αnaxagoras mean the beginning oftime? Ιn this case, by some unexplained' but automatic and dogmatic way, it sets an axiom: in the beginning everything tνvas one, a closed system. But what
existed outside this system? Or does <<outside> mean an unimaginable space exterior to the area where <eνerything was mixed in infinitive fundamental particles>? Αlthough Nous is brought in as a universal power without any explanation regarding its origin, it may imply either the theistic presence, or a rational explanation emerging from manifestations of matter.

Sophistik 10-4 "Aller Dinge Maß ist der Mensch" : die Lehren der Sophisten / Klaus Meister.-Paderborn ; München : Fink, 2010.-327 S. ; 24 cm.-ISBN 978-3-7705-5066-1 : EUR 39.90 [#1650] Die Sophisten haben, seit Platon sie in immer neuen Varianten massiv kriti-siert hatte, weithin einen schlechten Leumund. Sophistik im übertragenen Sin-ne hat pejorative Bedeutungen. Der Begriff bezieht sich dann auf ein willkürli-ches Verhältnis zur Wahrheit, auf die Praxis des rein rhetorischen Stärkerma-chens einer sachlich schwachen Position, wie es exemplarisch auch im Wi-derstreit des stärkeren und des schwächeren Logos in Aristophanes' Wolken präsentiert wird, in dem Fragen der Gerechtigkeit umgebogen werden zu Fra-gen der Überredung und letztlich auch der Gewalt. Im 20.

This article marks the first in a series in which the author will publish famous phrases attributed to ancient Greek philosophers. Afier a brief introduction in wich details of the proposed study are given, the anide examines phrases by Thales, Anaximandre and Anaximenes. I. INTRODUCCIÓN Pretendemos con este estudio iniciar la publicación de las frases más célebres pronunciadas por los filósofos griegos. Una primera dificultad surge a la hora de titular el estudio por cuanto que no es fácil expresar con un vocablo concreto el concepto que vamos a desarrollar. En efecto, son varios los términos que se aplican para referirse a aquellas expresiones atribuidas a personajes históricos o a la sabiduría popular y que resumen un pensamiento o una verdad. Esa dificultad también se encuentra cuan-1 Este estudio forma parte del Proyecto de Investigación «Selección temática de textos griegos», que ha contado con una subvención de la Universidad de La Laguna, siendo su Director el Dr. D. MARCOS MARTÍNEZ HERNÁNDEZ.

The late Antique mosaic of Orpheus decorated a small room, approximately 18 m2 in area, connected with two even smaller ones, in 4 m2 and the other 2 m2 in area, belonging most likely to a small funerary chapel (or tomb) discovered in the ancient necropolis by the Damascene Gate in Jerusalem; it was discovered in 1901 by H. Vincent.
The author proposes a new interpretation of the iconographic program of the Orpheus myth used by wealthy Christians in a sepulchral context (see Olszewski M.T. «Orphée endeuillé de la mosaïque funéraire de Jérusalem», in Rey Mimoso-Ruiz, B. ed., Actes du colloque «Orphée entre Soleil et ombre», à l’Institut Catholique de Toulouse du 16 au 17 novembre 2007, Inter Lignes, numéros spécial – mars 2008, pp. 205-214, 226). He also proposes a new interpretation of the role Orpheus played in Roman funerary art, concentrating on the importance of the play on words and the visual and textual punning that was popular in ancient art and especially in funerary art. He rejects the popular interpretation of Orpheus as Christ in the Roman catacombs and proposes to interpret the image as that of Orpheus, bard of the departed souls, without any ahistorical connection with Christ. The program of the mosaic from Jerusalem is thus explained as a play on the words Orpheus-orphanos and Chiron (Chi-Rho) and Pan [Παν(τοκράτωρ)].The frequently used Christian funerary formula of resting in peace, Christ or the Lord corresponds
perfectly with the mood created around the mythical bard.
Orpheus’ universal role as singer and musician moving even the most stony of hearts, extolling the beloved departed, is absolutely justified in the context of a 6th-century Christian tomb. Orpheus is a popular and neutral figure, meaning that in effect it does not constitute a threat to Christian theology and can be tolerated by the educated Christians of Jerusalem.

Abstract Si propone una nuova interpetazione di Teofrasto, Historia Plantarum IV. 11.1–9 dedicato alla descrizione di due tipologie di ance per aulo: il passo è stato messo a confronto con le esperienze pratiche di costruzione e uso di questo tipo di imboccatura ancora vive in zone grecaniche della Calabria, documentate da fotografie e da una registrazione dei suoni (accessibili nella pagina web http:www.unicatt.itdocentimatelli). Anche in altre opere Teofrasto si è occupato dell'aulo per descriverne gli effetti terapeutici e catartici. Si approfondiscono le questioni musicali implicate in tali testimonianze (tipo di strumento musicale, concetti di ‘genere’, ‘amonia’, ‘ritmo’), offrendo alcune esemplificazioni esecutive nella pagina web attraverso il suono dell'aulo (suonato dal M.stro C. Crucitti). Infine la nozione di ‘catarsi’ viene studiata all'interno della filosofia di Teofrasto, dove fisiologia umana, psicologia, poetica e musica sono teoreticamente collegate in un sistema unitario. Particolare importanza viene data al collegamento dell'idea di ‘entusiasmo’ a quella di ‘catarsi’, entrambe esperienze sia fisiologiche che psichiche, e al tempo stesso ‘poetiche’: una intima unione collega l'esperienza poetico/estetica alla condizione psico-fisica dell'individuo.

L a Storia è fatta dagli uomini e gli uomini sono il risultato della Storia. Muovendo da tale consapevolezza, il presente lavoro ripercorre la vita e le imprese di quei personaggi della storia greca e romana che hanno impresso con tanta forza la propria personalità sugli eventi da divenire eterni. Remo, Romolo, Silla e Teseo prendono vita dalle pagine di Plutarco, Sallustio e Tito Livio per svelare un volto inedito, umano e "partecipato" della storia. Ne deriva un affascinante viaggio attraverso i secoli, utile per approfondire alcuni aspetti dell'antichità e per comprendere meglio la natura, il carattere e le azioni dei protagonisti che hanno costituito l'arché della nostra civiltà, contribuendo con il loro modus vivendi a illuminare e a guidare i nostri giudizi e le nostre scelte, quindi il nostro modo di essere.

""En este volumen se incluyen sus dos obras más emblemáticas: los tratados Acerca del alma y Acerca del destino. El tratado Acerca del alma aborda una interpretación de la obra homónima de Aristóteles, y contiene el análisis y la discusión de las cuestiones más controvertidas de la psicología peripatética, como es el caso del tipo de implicación que tiene el denominado intelecto agente en el proceso cognitivo humano. El tratado Acerca del destino contiene una profunda reflexión desde un punto de vista aristotélico de dos temas de enorme presencia en la filosofía helenística, el tema del destino y el de la libertad personal.

Alejandro de Afrodisias, que vivió a caballo entre los siglos II y III de nuestra era, es considerado por la trascendencia de su obra y de su pensamiento como el segundo gran representante de la escuela peripatética, sólo por detrás de su fundador Aristóteles.""

This paper focuses on one of the major criticisms made to Aristotle's virtue ethics, namely that it lacks explicit moral action guidance. The same criticism has been addressed to later developments of virtue ethics. There have been several attempts to overcome this objection and to demonstrate that modern theories of virtue ethics do provide principles of right action. In this paper, I discuss mainly two such major attempts: the exemplarist approach and the virtue rules approach. My aim is to examine whether, if applied to Aristotle’s virtue ethics, these two approaches can provide a convincing answer to the criticism that Aristotle’s ethics does not offer explicit moral action guidance .

More than 20 years after presenting his first interpretation of the mosaic from the House of Aion in a paper entitled “Uwagi na temat mozaiki z Domu Aiona w Nea Paphos (Cypr)” (Meander 9/10, 1987, p. 421-438, in Polish, and translated to English: « The Immortality of the Human Soul and the Dionysiac Mysteries in the 4th Century Allegory [in Connection with the Interpretation of the Mosaic from the “House of Aion” at Paphos in Cyprus]»), where he proposed reading the five mythological panels (1. Leda and Zeus; 2. Dionysus on Mount Nysa; 3. The Dionysian thiasos; 4. Apollo and Marsyas; 5. The Apotheosis of Cassiopeia) as an allegory of the destiny of the human soul and body, starting with conception and ending with the liberation of the soul and its apotheosis, the author now enhances his initial interpretation with numerous reflections concerning the historical context of this work of art, created in the years 320-360.
If, according to the author, the mosaic is a “Hymn” in honour of the pagan gods, Man (his soul) and his place in the (pagan) universe, then at the same time it polemicises with the Christian faith and its God, Jesus Christ.
The author puts forward numerous new solutions relating to the mosaic’s iconography and iconology. Analysis of the mosaic also leads him to propose a solution to the as-yet unanswered question regarding the absence of images of the crucified Christ in Christian art of the 3rd and 4th centuries, up until 420/430, when the first images of Christ on the cross appear.
CONTENTS:
Introduction
1. Research to-date (recap)
2. Description of mosaic (recap)
2.1. Composition of five mythological scenes
2.2. Brief iconographic description of mythological panels
2.3. Outline of individual iconographic elements and their respective roles
2.4. The pagan gods’ air of majesty and dignity as an expression of piety
3. A few words about the pagan reaction
4. An apology of pious human life according to pagan principles and a polemic on the Christian model of Man and his theological idol, Jesus Christ
4.1. Divine intervention in the act of human conception (allusion to/polemic on the Annunciation to the Virgin Mary)
4.2. The Epiphany of Dionysus (an allusion to the Epiphany of Christ – Theou Pais)
4.3. The procession and dissemination of Dionysian order (allusion to/polemic on Christ’s entry into Jerusalem)
4.4. The error of Marsyas (polemic on/allusion to the error of Jesus the Messiah): arrest, sentencing for arrogance and lack of piety (asebeia) and condemnation to a martyr’s death
4.5. The anabasis (or anagoge psyches) of a ‘beautiful soul’ (allusion to/polemic on the Ascension of Christ)
5. A few words on the mosaic programme prior to final conclusions
Final conclusions

Paper compares Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates with the Christian understanding of creation, time, epistemology, and the soul. It also explores the influence of Stoicism in a few of Paul's writings.

Keywords: Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, World Soul, motion, motility, mutable, immutable, eternal.

While a city can only persist through common action and justice, eros may cause citizens to privilege their private interests over the good of the city. However, eros cannot simply be eliminated, as it is necessary for the existence of the city. In the Laws, the Athenian Stranger proposes to solve this problem by using eros against eros, demonstrating how to do so in three cases: wine, warfare and women. But although this approach may manage eros for a time, we are shown that no city can persist forever. Thus, through eros we are shown the essential tragedy of politics.

The ideal sense of a word and the real meaning of it: the divergence point of the Ancient Greek and Indian Philosophies. 

The article discusses a possible reason for the mutual  disinterestness of the Greek and Indian philosophical traditions. The philosophers ignored each other, and it is a problem, since for six centuries (3 BC - 3 AD) Indian and Greek cultures closely interacted on the territory of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms. To find the answer, it is proposed to take into account that both philosophical intuitions appeared and developed in cultures with different schemes of rationality. The Greek scheme is based on a pair of logos-praxis. Two skills are specifically combined in the logos as activity: to think and to generate rational speech according to special rules.  The Indian scheme is based on the opposition of intentional acts of consciousness to its objects among which there are both acts with material things and speech acts. This scheme emerged  first in the ritual context. Due to the specifics of their rationality scheme, the Greeks are looking for an ideal object associated with the word, expanding the rules for using their native language and not quite noticing it. In the dialog "Hippias Major," Socrates applies the distinction of syntactical constructions with or without a definite article. Without this distinction, it is impossible to formulate the problem of a possible existence of the beautiful in itself (eidos of the beautiful). The translation of this passage into languages with an article is trivial, as  but in languages devoid of article, as Latin, translators were forced to make additions. As a result, a new ideal object appears for Greek thought. In the Buddhist dialogue Milindapañha in the Pali  language the interlocutors wonder what is the real object of the word «chariot». They come to the conclusion that it does not exist in the world. Later the arguments of the same Buddhist school indicate that the chariot is to be found  not in the natural world, but in encompassing human activity. Thus, the Indian reasoning deprives everyday naive consciousness of the illusion of the reality of the chariot. Thinking about words as connected with thoughts, as  Greeks do, and as connected with things, along with the Indians, are not compatible within one discourse and are mutually almost incomprehensible. The interaction of these philosophical traditions seems unnecessary and iвmprobable.
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To be published in June 2022

Written in the hope that it may shed some light on what is a poorly recognised yet important piece of Ancient Greek philosophical work. This article is a summary into the Athenian interlocutor's argument into the relevance and existence of the Gods within the Ancient Greek Society as seen in Plato's Laws Book X. With specific reference to the purpose of the argument for the overall book.

This chapter for Adam Goldwyn and James Nikopoulos ed. *Brill's Companion to Classical Reception in International Modernism and the Avant Garde* looks at Camus' philhellenism, arguing that it is both what shapes his thought, and makes it singular in the post-war French scene.  In four parts, it looks at Camus' early "Greece of the flesh", rooted in his upbringing and education; Camus' critique of political messianisms or theologies, based in his appeal to classical mesure, and a moderate philosophical scepticism; Camus' "virtue ethics" and his critique of heroism, fidelity, and authenticity as ideals (as "secondary virtues") in particular; then Camus' cultivation of literature, "style," and philiosophical self-writing in the Carnets as a way of life.

This is a comparison of Agathon’s role in Aristophanes’ Thesmophoriazusae and Plato’s Symposium. Firstly, I examine the Platonic version, and the unique, idiosyncratic part Plato gives Agathon to play, as a host to all, and a hostage to Socrates. Secondly, I discuss his interaction with Inlaw, the ordinary Athenian, in Aristophanes’ play. Such parallel reading allows us not only to refine our outlook on the dramatic construction both of the “talking party” and of the comic performance, but also to capture how really poikilos, for better or worse, that urban love could be. Finally, I analyze the significance of this juxtaposition, as an intertext. Plato, I argue, produces a proper palinode of Agathon, as an erotikos and a mimetic poet. By taking seriously the face-to-face between Agathon and Agathon, two dissonant and yet compatible variations on one man, our picture of Athenian erotic culture emerges sharper, and in greater detail. 
Key words:
Eros, sensuality, praise, blame, softness, manliness, effeminacy, body, language.

Epictetus: Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, newly translated by Robin Hard and commented by Christopher Gill, is the newest English rendering of the famous Stoic. This Oxford World's Classic version is based on the 1925 Oldfather Loeb Greek text and not a revision of any English edition. Overall, Oxford World's Classics' recent English offering of Epictetus' corpus is a tastefully thorough rendition of the Imperial Roman philosopher's contribution to classical culture. This book could appropriately find itself into an undergraduate survey of ancient philosophy, a Roman culture course, or even onto an aspiring graduate student's bookshelf as an introduction to one of the big names of antiquity.

Tentativo di afferrare l'autentica maschera di Crizia nel Carmide di Platone, in un confronto con l'autentica voce di Crizia (frammenti) e con gli altri personaggi del dialogo. Il Crizia che emerge da questo confronto è un Crizia poeta e letterato, prima che politico e tiranno.