Space Mining

The aim of this paper is to analyze the concept of 'non-appropriation' in outer space from a legal point of view. The Outer Space Treaty in its Article II provides that outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by any means. In the absence of an official interpretation, the precise meaning of this provision has been discussed for decades. This paper will approach the problem by going back to the origin of the concept 'appropriation': more than 1500 years ago Roman lawyers had already developed different categories to indicate the relationship between a person and a thing. Among them, the concept of res communes omnium was emblematic of how these ancient notions could find new life in the regulation of the cosmic dimension. These categories evolved during the following centuries and eventually led to the development of a specific regime called 'property law'. Over time, different types of relationship between a person and a thing were elaborated and then categorized, depending on the degree of disposition that the person has on it. This resulted in a large number of legal instruments that, if applied to outer space, could allow forms of disposition-other than appropriation-of space and its resources. The legal status of outer space derives from Roman law. Many of the legal problems faced by the international community today with regard to the cosmic environment are not different from the ones already faced by Roman lawyers when trying to regulate the reality around them. This paper will demonstrate how the 'non-appropriation' principle could be interpreted as being limited to just a very specific type of property right, leaving the door open to other forms of disposition of things beyond the atmosphere. In other words, Roman law theories on property rights can offer legal arguments for the use of space resources without breaching the Outer Space Treaty. Underlining the legal feasibility of commercial use of space resources as well as of settlements on other celestial bodies can hopefully represent an incentive for the international community to establish a regime regarding these activities. If that is not achieved, uncertainty will prevail and conflicts are certain to arise.

Considering the worsening climate change, in the future outer space might be our last Noah’s Ark. Now, humans must look
to space as an opportunity to support growing resource requirements. Asteroids are rich in metals, which could be transported
back to Earth. Unfortunately, the existing international legal framework discourages investments in the space economy. Once
an enterprise invests billions of dollars in discovering and developing a mining site, it cannot claim any ownership because of
the non-appropriation principle stipulated in Article 2 of the Outer Space Treaty (OST). Thus, other entities could legally
access and exploit the same resource without any participation in the initial financial investment, increasing the risk of potential
conflict. Bearing this in mind, the question arises, which legal regime could ensure effective allocation of resources, avoiding
a chaotic space race to acquire valuable assets? The aim of this research is to argue that the first two articles of OST should be
amended, to set up an international legal trust system which would guarantee different kinds of rights, dependently on the
nature of the celestial body. E.g., property rights could be preferable to a lease over asteroids, as they could be exploited to
their disappearance. This proposed system would be led by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), as
the main trustee. The co-trustees would be the nations of the world. Prior to initiating any space activity, every entity would
send a request to their national government. If all the legal parameters are respected, the nation would forward the operational
request to the UNOOSA. In the case of acceptance, UNOOSA would record the permit on an international public registry. The
country in which the company has been registered would investigate whether the activities of its national company are
consistent with the permit. This would be the ordinary model. The extraordinary model would be when the applicant for the
space activity is a state, then the trustee would be the UN. All lucrative activities would be subject to benefit-sharing. Finally,
this research will demonstrate the valuable outcome of the International Legal Trust System and its advantages for all
humankind. Private companies would rely on property rights, while the benefit-sharing could be used to finance the 17
Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN in 2015, which address peace, climate change, inequalities and poverty.

This paper examines what I call post-planetary ecologies, basically the logics of ecological thinking that will emerge once the human lifeworld begins to meaningfully establish itself in outer space, a major step towards which will occur with the onset of space mining operations. The text itself is less a full treatment of post-planetary ecological thought as a call for a reconsideration of eco-criticism in light of the emergent post-planetary paradigm, with an emphasis on the emergent risks and dangers that might accompany any attempts to become post-planetary.

İn this article we examine asteroid or space mining issue which will be the first step for the space colonization which has been a dream for men. İn this work we explain how asteroids is selected and how mine will be excavated from them. Also we touch the companies work about asteroid mining and which step they are on now. Hovewer we examine what materials are going to be excavated and we give place to specialist of the asteroid mining's subject.

ABSTRACT: This Note addresses a fundamental ambiguity in the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 (“CSLCA”). It is unclear whether the statute authorizes U.S. citizens to extract natural resources from asteroids and other celestial bodies, as is commonly assumed. Alternatively, the statute can be read to merely entitle citizens to resources that have already been obtained, where the regime for actually obtaining such resources remains undetermined. The Note resolves this issue in favor of the interpretation that best aligns with international law and policy. It first shows that the relevant elements of international law—the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 (“OST”) and customary international law (“CIL”)—do not resolve the issue. The Note then adopts a broader approach by considering the OST’s anti-imperial policy. By engaging scholarship on law, colonialism, and empire, this approach centers Global South States in space law discourse. This approach reveals two ways in which the more commonly accepted interpretation of the CSLCA cuts against the anti-imperial policy of the OST, related to the distinction between private and State extraction and to State conferral of property rights. To avoid contradicting these policy concerns, the CSLCA should be read narrowly, such that it leaves open future determination of the space resources regime. Finally, the Note offers guidance for such a regime. It argues that CIL development based on subsequent legislation or mining would let Global North States asymmetrically shape international law, which would contradict the OST’s anti-imperial policy. Instead, the Note recommends multilateral agreements that employ organizationally diverse models, which mix collective and private ownership. The Note ends by reflecting on lingering questions in the context of development and the Global South.

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2018 Salzburg Global Seminar in Washington, DC as part of the Salzburg Cutler Fellowship.

Building upon the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty (OST), the Moon Agreement (MA) was intended to initiate discussions on a detailed international regime for the exploitation of the natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies. However, only 18 states are party to the MA, none of which is a major spacefaring nation. The reason behind this broad rejection, is a misperception of the MA. Nevertheless, its principles build upon the provisions of the OST. Moreover, other existing exploitation regimes work on the same basis. It is thus hard to imagine a substantial differing alternative, a conclusion which was also confirmed by the outcome of the Hague Working Group, which building blocks stay relatively close to the MA’s guiding principles.

States have been looking for other options. The United States initiated the national route and Luxembourg followed this track with an even more ambitious law. It seems that this national approach gained traction, as more and more states show interest in national legislation for the utilisation of natural resources in space. Even China, traditionally maintaining a wait and see approach, has finally taken a stance by signing a memorandum of understanding with Luxembourg. Additionally, China’s recent achievements on the Moon demonstrate its significance as a spacefaring nation, an emerging space giant which is only in its infancy.

With different nations wielding their own national legislation, attempting to enable their private industries to commence in space resource utilisation activities, a highly competitive contest could ignite. Following this scenario, the Moon, once shining in the unique and peaceful international space environment, turns red. Such a symbolic image would not only be representative for China’s emergence in space, but could also become illustrative for what would be a worst-case scenario: a commercial bloodbath between private companies relying on domestic legislation, at the expense of an international regime.

What is now the gravity of such a prospected red Moon? Taking into account the present course of events, it seems impossible to alter the negative perception of the MA. With China supporting the Luxembourg initiative, it looks like yet another major spacefaring nation, potentially even the major spacefaring nation, has forsaken the MA. However, looks can be deceiving.

In the first part of this paper, the rejection of the MA will be discussed. Next, the author explores whether it is possible at all, without violating the OST, to deviate from the only set of binding principles in the MA, stated in Article 11 paragraph 7, that must be achieved for the establishment of an international regime. Finally, the opportunities and threats of a red Moon will be analysed.

In situ resource utilization is a valid and crucial element of manned space missions and extraterrestrial colonization plans that increases chances of their success. Mars – the planet most accurately resembling Earth – is an exceptionally important place, which in the future could harbour our species and provide an answer for existence of life in the Universe.

Herein, the thesis comprehensively covers this topic providing a compendium of up-to-date geology, climatology, technical and technological Martian research, particularly focusing on water resources and accompanying processes both in the past and today.
Moreover, the thesis analyzes water sampling and production technologies by developing a geological-thermal model of icy regolith in the Western Utopia Planitia, estimating relative effectiveness ε of drilling and sampling mechanism and modelling heat transfers in the regolith using CFD.

Is it easier to imagine the end of almost anything than the end of capitalism? The recent viral spread of the “save the economy” meme suggests that apocalyptic myths foretelling the end capitalism are now a potent force within contemporary cultural politics. This paper—a gloss of Daniel Suarez’s recent best-seller Delta-v—critically interrogates a version of this myth of capitalism’s demise. Its focus is on the ways in which anxiety towards the future of productivism is fuels problematic hopes regarding what is presented as a sustainable post-planetary economic utopia in the cosmos.

Geçtiğimiz yıllarda tüm Dünyanın gündeminde olan Avatar filminde insanların başka bir gezegene gidip oranın kaynaklarına sahip olabilmek için verdikleri savaşı izlemiştik. Eskiden hayal ettiğimiz çoğu şeyin günümüzde gerçekleşme fırsatını bulduğunu gördüğümüz bir çağdayız. ABD'nde yürürlüğe giren bu yasa ile Dünya'nın kaynakları bu kadar kısıtlıyken insanoğlunun başka kaynak arayışlarına ve başka Dünyalardaki doğal kaynaklara yönelmesine neden oluyor. Asteroit madenciliği 50'li yıllardan bu yana bilimkurgu ve popüler bilim kitaplarını süsleyen bir konu. Amaç dünyada az bulunan platin gibi altından bile değerli madenlerin çok daha bol olduğu " gökteki taşlara " ulaşmak ve dünya ekonomisini değiştirecek olan süper şanslı şirketlerden biri olmak. Öyleyse asteroitlerden maden çıkarmak ekonomik olarak mümkün mü, kârlı mı ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Avrupa Birliği ve Rusya gibi devletlerin/ organizasyonların uzaya maden gemisi gönderecek teknolojisi var mı? Bu yazıda asteroit madenciliğinin mümkün olup olmayacağına ve bu yeni madencilik türü ile oluşabilecek yeni maden ekonomisine değinilecektir. Dünya'daki birçok savaşın asıl nedenlerinin doğal kaynakların paylaşımı üzerine olduğu düşünüldüğünde, sınırlı rezervlere sahip olduğu bilinen birçok madenin başka platformlarda aranması gayet doğal olduğu görülüyor. Göktaşlarındaki madenler, Dünya'daki nadir elementlerin en yoğun ve saf hâllerinde bulunabiliyor. Ayrıca Yerküre üzerindeki madencilik faaliyetleri, bulunduğu sınırlar içindeki ülkenin yasal denetimi altında yapılabiliyor. Dünyada mevcudiyeti gider ek azalan altın, gümüş, kobalt, manganez, molibden, demir, nikel, osmiyum, paladyum, platin, renyum, rodyum, rutenyum, tungsten ve nadir toprak elementleri gibi madenlerin uzayda asteroitlerde Dünya'dakinden çok daha fazla bulunduğu bilinmektedir. Uzmanlara göre modern endüstrinin ana elementleri olan antimuan, bakır, kalay, çinko, gümüş, kurşun ve altın gibi rezervler gelişmekte olan ülkelerin artan tüketimine paralel olarak 50-60 yıl içerisinde dünya üzerinde tükenmiş olacak. Başta platin gibi nadir elementleri içeren bu madenler asteroit kuşağında bol bulunuyor. Asteroit kuşağına ait teleskop görüntüleri ve Dünya'daki göktaşlarının kimyasal yapısını incelediğimizde gök taşlarının özellikle nadir bulunan madenler açısından oldukça zengin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu nedenle asteroit madenciliğine oldukça ciddi yaklaşan ve bu konuda başta yasa çıkarımı olmak üzere birçok çalışması bulunan Lüksemburg menşeli Planetary Resources şirketi asteroit madenciliğine yatırımlarını giderek arttırmaktadır. Şirketçe yapılan bilimsel çalışmalarda dünyada üretimi giderek azalan platinyum ve kobalt gibi değerli elementlerin asteroitlerden çıkartılıp dünyaya gönderilmesinin daha doğru bir yatırım olacağı ifade ediliyor. Bundan dolayıdır ki ABD'nde yayınlanan asteroit madenciliği yasasının hemen ardından NASA Gelişmiş Kavramlar Enstitüsü (NASA Instituefor Advanced Concepts-NIAC), Kepler Enerji & Uzay Mühendisliği (Kepler Energy Space Engineering-LCC), Derin Uzay Endüstrileri (Deep Space Industries), Gezegen Kaynakları (Planetary Resources) gibi büyük şirketler uzay madenciliği için birbirleriyle yarışmaya başlamıştır. Yeraltında kilometrelerce derinlikte sondaj yapmak ve buralardaki maden potansiyelini ortaya koymak oldukça zor. Derinlere inildikçe değişiklik gösteren jeolojik formasyonlar ve bu

Geçtiğimiz yıllarda tüm Dünyanın gündeminde olan Avatar filminde insanların başka bir gezegene gidip oranın kaynaklarına sahip olabilmek için verdikleri savaşı izlemiştik. Eskiden hayal ettiğimiz çoğu şeyin günümüzde gerçekleşme fırsatını bulduğunu gördüğümüz bir çağdayız. ABD'nde yürürlüğe giren bu yasa ile Dünya'nın kaynakları bu kadar kısıtlıyken insanoğlunun başka kaynak arayışlarına ve başka Dünyalardaki doğal kaynaklara yönelmesine neden oluyor. Asteroit madenciliği 50'li yıllardan bu yana bilimkurgu ve popüler bilim kitaplarını süsleyen bir konu. Amaç dünyada az bulunan platin gibi altından bile değerli madenlerin çok daha bol olduğu " gökteki taşlara " ulaşmak ve dünya ekonomisini değiştirecek olan süper şanslı şirketlerden biri olmak. Öyleyse asteroitlerden maden çıkarmak ekonomik olarak mümkün mü, kârlı mı ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Avrupa Birliği ve Rusya gibi devletlerin/ organizasyonların uzaya maden gemisi gönderecek teknolojisi var mı? Bu yazıda asteroit madenciliğinin mümkün olup olmayacağına ve bu yeni madencilik türü ile oluşabilecek yeni maden ekonomisine değinilecektir. Dünya'daki birçok savaşın asıl nedenlerinin doğal kaynakların paylaşımı üzerine olduğu düşünüldüğünde, sınırlı rezervlere sahip olduğu bilinen birçok madenin başka platformlarda aranması gayet doğal olduğu görülüyor. Göktaşlarındaki madenler, Dünya'daki nadir elementlerin en yoğun ve saf hâllerinde bulunabiliyor. Ayrıca Yerküre üzerindeki madencilik faaliyetleri, bulunduğu sınırlar içindeki ülkenin yasal denetimi altında yapılabiliyor. Dünyada mevcudiyeti gider ek azalan altın, gümüş, kobalt, manganez, molibden, demir, nikel, osmiyum, paladyum, platin, renyum, rodyum, rutenyum, tungsten ve nadir toprak elementleri gibi madenlerin uzayda asteroitlerde Dünya'dakinden çok daha fazla bulunduğu bilinmektedir. Uzmanlara göre modern endüstrinin ana elementleri olan antimuan, bakır, kalay, çinko, gümüş, kurşun ve altın gibi rezervler gelişmekte olan ülkelerin artan tüketimine paralel olarak 50-60 yıl içerisinde dünya üzerinde tükenmiş olacak. Başta platin gibi nadir elementleri içeren bu madenler asteroit kuşağında bol bulunuyor. Asteroit kuşağına ait teleskop görüntüleri ve Dünya'daki göktaşlarının kimyasal yapısını incelediğimizde gök taşlarının özellikle nadir bulunan madenler açısından oldukça zengin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu nedenle asteroit madenciliğine oldukça ciddi yaklaşan ve bu konuda başta yasa çıkarımı olmak üzere birçok çalışması bulunan Lüksemburg menşeli Planetary Resources şirketi asteroit madenciliğine yatırımlarını giderek arttırmaktadır. Şirketçe yapılan bilimsel çalışmalarda dünyada üretimi giderek azalan platinyum ve kobalt gibi değerli elementlerin asteroitlerden çıkartılıp dünyaya gönderilmesinin daha doğru bir yatırım olacağı ifade ediliyor. Bundan dolayıdır ki ABD'nde yayınlanan asteroit madenciliği yasasının hemen ardından NASA Gelişmiş Kavramlar Enstitüsü (NASA Instituefor Advanced Concepts-NIAC), Kepler Enerji & Uzay Mühendisliği (Kepler Energy Space Engineering-LCC), Derin Uzay Endüstrileri (Deep Space Industries), Gezegen Kaynakları (Planetary Resources) gibi büyük şirketler uzay madenciliği için birbirleriyle yarışmaya başlamıştır. Yeraltında kilometrelerce derinlikte sondaj yapmak ve buralardaki maden potansiyelini ortaya koymak oldukça zor. Derinlere inildikçe değişiklik gösteren jeolojik formasyonlar ve bu

This paper was presented before ESA astronaut Frank De Winne, for the course of Questions in Space Studies. In the paper, a European position is suggested in relation with China. The historical background, policy, and international relations of China as a spacefaring nation are thereby considered.

Based on an overview of the past, present, and potential future of a Sino-European partnership, Europe’s potential role, both of ESA and the EU in a broader international context is analysed.

China is continuously developing its space capabilities. The descent on the far side of the Moon was not only a historic achievement in space exploration, but also a strong signal and concrete expression of its rising capabilities to the rest of the world. Nevertheless, China desires to engage extensively in international cooperation. Although the nation still faces trust issues, one can speak of a window of opportunity to boost global cooperation with regard to human space exploration.

La percepción de factibilidad de iniciativas en el espacio ultraterrestre más allá de la órbita terrestre, como la minería espacial, el establecimiento de bases permanentes en objetos celestes y la “extensión territorial” de los estados encuentra en el sistema “duro" de tratados del espacio ultraterrestre un escollo que, aparentemente, no tiene solución en los sistemas legales obligatorios, y podría tenerla en sistemas de gobernanza más pragmáticos, tácticos y orientados a resolver los problemas específicos, en los cuales la idea de “legal/ilegal” pasa a un segundo plano.
El acceso a estos mecanismos es fuertemente dependiente de órdenes internacionales de cooperación y multilateralismo, que hoy parecen convivir con órdenes en los cuales algunos estados hegemónicos pueden desplegar actitudes uni y bilaterales sin consecuencias, dados los vacíos legales que subsisten en el cuerpo de tratados del espacio y en la ausencia de mecanismos de policía.

Abstract
The “hard” system of treaties of outer space is being marked as a hindrance to  future space activities. The perception is that initiatives in outer space beyond the Earth's orbit are both feasible and likely profitable, among them space mining, the establishment of permanent bases in celestial objects and the “territorial extension” of the states. This obstacle, apparently, has no solution in the current mandatory space law, however the answer could rely in more pragmatic governance systems, aimed to solve specific issues and matters, in which the idea of "legal / illegal" loses operational relevance.
The access to these mechanisms is strongly dependent on international orders of multi-lateralism and cooperation, which today seem to coexist with orders in which some hegemonic states can display uni and bilateral attitudes without consequences, given the legal gaps that remain in the outer space law body and the absence of validated mechanisms for space law enforcement.

This paper was written for the course of Space Sciences and Exploration, during the Master of Space Studies. The paper provides an overview of the threats and opportunities with regard to near-Earth asteroids. From asteroid impacts and planetary defence techniques, to exploration missions and commercial opportunities of asteroid mining.

A exploração de recursos naturais no espaço exterior, incluindo minerais, está cada vez mais próxima de se tornar tecnologicamente possível e deixará de ser mera ficção científica. Projetos apontam para a exploração de recursos naturais da Lua e de asteroides. O potencial esgotamento de recursos naturais tem levado pesquisadores a buscar alternativas fora da Terra, entre elas a explotação de minerais no espaço exterior. Este artigo tem por objetivo estudar as formas atuais de regulação sobre o assunto e demonstrar a competência do direito internacional para estabelecer normas internacionais relativas à mineração no espaço exterior. A ausência de regulação sobre o assunto tende ao surgimento de leis nacionais, que engendram uma competição normativa, cujas normas podem não estar em conformidade com as normas peremptórias de direito internacional espacial. O aumento de empresas privadas nas atividades espacias intensifica a parceria público-privada. Entetanto, a sustentabilidade para a exploração e o uso de recursos naturais do espaço exterior devem atender ao princípio do interesse público global ”“isto é, o interesse de toda a comunidade internacional e de de todos os países, independentemente do grau de desenvolvimento, em conformidade com o Tratado do Espaço Exterior, de 1967. A partir da análise qualitativa, o resultado desta pesquisa revela a necessidade de se adotar normas internacionais que regulem e determinem a lei aplicável a tais atividades, ainda que se inicie por normas de soft law em nível global. Além disso, este artigo sugere a criação de uma autoridade internacional para recursos naturais espaço exterior, a fim de centralizar e controlar as atividades rumo a uma gestão sustentável na exploração e usos de recursos minerais espaciais.

Asteroid mining has been a focus of a number of studies in the fields of future studies, law economics, as well as geology, and robotics. Legal aspects of space mining have been and still are a topic of many academic debates, as well as proceedings of the UNOOSA. Vagueness and the idea of Common Heritage of Mankind were the main reasons of the rejection of the The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, which provisions included the would to be foundations of a new space exploration and exploitation regime. Although state parties are taking advantage of the “province of mankind”, and intend to use their national regulations as lex specialis, there is a need for a global framework, binding all space mining parties. This is due to the plurality of models being developed by state parties and space involved NGOs, where one state could base it’s model on XIX century whaling, with “miners-keepers” as a principle, the other on the Great Mining A...

One hundred and seventy-five years ago, in his book titled The Condition of the Working Class in England, Engels wrote about the ways in which the mine workers were exploited within the capitalist system. Classical economists believed that with the improvements in technology, capitalism would create egalitarian employment opportunities for everyone. In their opinion, the coal which served as a catalyser for the classical modernization had no place in the age of digital technology. However nowadays, especially in various developing countries such as Turkey, in the production of coal mines, the existing working conditions are the same as the ones that were applicable one hundred and seventy years ago and the exploitation of the labour of the workers continues. Notwithstanding, digital technologies serve for the control of capitalist production instead of the wellbeing of the workers. Coal has always had an important role in the historical continuity and discontinuity periods of capitalism. Considering the unbreakable link between the exploitation of nature and capitalist accumulation of capital, giving up coal and switching to renewable energy sources does not seem possible. The dialectical link between technology consumption and technology production is also one of the most important reasons for coal production to continue. This article argues that in Turkey today, the technology used in coal mine craft prioritises the control of labour rather than prioritizing the working comfort of the mine workers.

Article body is in Spanish

Abstract
A.H. Maslow’s theses on a structure of levels of needs that motivate human actions has branched into the International Relations arena, in the form of tailored models. These approaches diverge from decision models based on game theories or power balance theories in that the motivations for both decisions and actions, be them impacting just internal or external-to the state issues are very influenced by the current state of things, namely, the needs of the state in focus. Moreover, that the predominance of an upper level of needs in decisions will likely occur if lower-levels have been “adequatelly fulfilled”.
A case study is made; the 2012 conflict between Argentina and Ghana on Ghana’s internal law system attempt to confiscate the military vessel ARA Libertad, by the time with active immunity enabled.

It sounds like the stuff of science fiction, but thanks to recent technological advances, countries around the world are preparing for the possibility of mining asteroids as they rocket past Earth. Last year the US passed the "SPACE Act of 2015" allowing its citizens, if able, to mine and sell asteroid resources, while earlier this month Luxembourg announced that it was trying to jump start an industrial sector to mine asteroid resources in space. But what are the possibilities and should Australia be preparing for lift-off too? Join us for this online briefing as experts explore just what's up there, why we want it and whether we should be preparing for  future "space wars".

AS the world’s mineral resources diminish, scientists are looking to the skies for the next big mining discovery. Asteroids contain an abundance of key resources and metals that are essential for terrestrial development and celestial advancement, most of which are in decline on Earth. These include gold, silver, iridium, platinum and tungsten.

Alice Gorman from South Australia’s Flinders University said Australia was well placed to lead the way in the emerging industry, particularly in the areas of space law, policy and regulation.

The time for thinking on mining operations on or underneath the surface of the Moon is coming closer that we expect. With the successful results of private launching of orbital space crafts, and the collection of samples from the Moon's surface and from asteroids, the next step will be starting to deploy unmanned vehicles with equipment and supplies to the first lunar settlements just before humans begin to arrive. Mining will be one of the pioneering activities, and it will demand focusing on how to initiate operations, selecting the proper equipment and adjusting the experience from Earth into new working conditions, which include low gravity, high radiation, dust and extreme temperatures in unusual working shifts. Defining the unit operations for these primary works will be instrumental in the success of commissioning the first mining site on the Moon. This presentation will provide a first glance on the required actions to take and the preparation to consider right after landing there.

L’opera affronta gli aspetti civilistici di un settore che sarà centrale per il futuro fabbisogno mondiale: l’industria mineraria spaziale.
L’estrazione di risorse minerarie dai corpi celesti, ed in particolare dagli asteroidi vicini alla terra (NEAs), è ormai una realtà viva ed attuale. Diverse imprese minerarie spaziali sono infatti pronte ad iniziare la propria attività in orbita. Tale panorama si scontra tuttavia con forti lacune normative. Pertanto, il presente studio – muovendo dalla disciplina mineraria ex r.d. n. 1443/1927 e senza trascurare gli ordinamenti internazionali più rilevanti – offre una ricostruzione dell’impresa mineraria spaziale in rapporto con la legislazione vigente.

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Desde o ano de 2017, o governo dos Estados Unidos vem publicando
diretrizes e normas que buscam regulamentar uma nova incursão ao território lunar.
Entre elas estão a “Ordem Executiva de Incentivo ao Apoio Internacional à
Recuperação e Uso de Recursos Espaciais” e o “Artemis Accords”. Dispõem sobre a
volta à Lua de maneira sustentável e de forma que seja permitida a exploração
comercial por parte de cidadãos e empresas nacionais, bem como de parceiros.
Citam a extração de recursos naturais lunares como forma de incentivo à própria
economia e visam apoio privado e internacional. Em ambas as normas, reiteram o
respeito pelo Tratado do Espaço, a chamada “Carta Magna” do setor espacial,
adotada por mais de 100 países. No entanto, neste acordo mestre, a questão da
apropriação é proibida, seja na Lua ou outros corpos celestes. Considerando que as
normas norte-americanas sugerem permitir ações de venda do produto de minério
espacial, bem como instituir a possibilidade de criação de zonas de segurança onde
teriam exclusividade de uso, este trabalho pretende avaliar a legalidade de tais
operações à Luz do Tratado do Espaço, julgando se elas, caso realizadas, adentram
no conceito de apropriação, o que as tornaria irregulares perante os preceitos atuais
do Direito Espacial Internacional.
<ENGLISH>
Since the year 2017, the United States government has been publishing
guidelines and standards that seek to regulate a new incursion into lunar territory.
Among them are the “Executive Order on Encouraging International Support for the
Recovery and Use of Space Resources” and the “Artemis Accords”. They provide for
the return to the Moon in a sustainable manner and in a way that commercial
exploitation by national citizens and companies, as well as partners, is allowed. They
cite the extraction of natural lunar resources as a way to encourage their own
economy and seek private and international support. In both standards, they reiterate
respect for the Outer Space Treaty, the main rule of the space sector, adopted by
more than 100 countries. However, in this master agreement, the question of
appropriation is prohibited, whether on the Moon or other celestial bodies.
Considering that the North American standards suggest allowing actions to sell the
space mining product, as well as instituting the possibility of creating safety zones
where they would have exclusive use, this work intends to evaluate the legality of
such operations under the auspicies of the Outer Space Treaty, judging whether, if
carried out, they enter the concept of appropriation, which would make them irregular
in the face of the current precepts of International Space Law.

An optimal combination of mechanical means and microwave energy to break rock material could prove beneficial for space applications in terms of large scale production drilling or rock removal processes. In the present paper, application of low power microwave pulses was used to ...

Mining activity is currently facing a series of challenges, among which the limitation of personnel due to the sanitary restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic has become a forced reference for the rethinking of all exploitation activities and therefore it has affected the production objectives during the lockdown period, and for a considerable time, the work plans may not be properly forecasted. It is in this scenario where the application of existing modern technologies represents an opportunity to reactivate operations and level the mineral production rate required to meet the quotas of the current production period. Social distancing and the use of additional personal protection equipment will mean having fewer personnel at work points in the most critical line of action, this is drilling-blasting-LHD, and therefore it will be necessary to have tele-operated equipment, autonomous vehicles and a new data transmission infrastructure that allows us to interact with our equipment and make them work efficiently and safely. Control rooms will be required for centralized supervision and the incorporation of devices compatible with the "Industrial Internet of Things", a feature that will allow the flow of communications and data transmission required for all equipment to operate in a synchronized manner using or own data network. This will also represent a process of change from management to operators, in which tactical supervision and the use of workers' experience will play a fundamental role for its rapid implementation.

La actividad minera está enfrentando en la actualidad una serie de retos, entre los cuales la limitación de personal debido a las restricciones sanitarias impuestas por la pandemia del COVID-19 se ha convertido en un forzoso referente para el replanteamiento de todas las actividades de explotación y por lo tanto ha afectado los objetivos de producción durante el período de cierre de operaciones, y hasta donde se puede proyectar los planes de trabajo, por un tiempo considerable. Es en este escenario donde la aplicación de las modernas tecnologías existentes representa una oportunidad para reactivar las operaciones y nivelar la tasa de producción de mineral requerida para cumplir con las cuotas del presente período de producción. El distanciamiento social y la utilización de equipos adicionales de protección personal significará contar con menos personal en los puntos de trabajo, y por lo tanto se requerirá contar con equipos tele-operados, vehículos autónomos y una nueva infraestructura de transmisión de datos que nos permita interactuar con nuestros equipos y hacerlos trabajar con eficiencia y seguridad. Se requerirá de salas de control para la supervisión centralizada y la incorporación de dispositivos compatibles con el “Internet Industrial de las Cosas”, una característica que permitirá el flujo de comunicaciones y transmisión de datos requerida para que todos los equipos funcionen en forma sincronizada utilizando nuestra propia red informática. Ello representará también un proceso de cambio desde la gerencia hasta los operadores, en la cual la supervisión táctica y la utilización de la experiencia de los trabajadores cumplirá un papel fundamental para su rápida implementación.

Mining activity is currently facing a series of challenges, among which the limitation of personnel due to the sanitary restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic has become a forced reference for the rethinking of all exploitation activities and therefore it has affected the production objectives during the lockdown period, and for a considerable time, the work plans may not be properly forecasted. It is in this scenario where the application of existing modern technologies represents an opportunity to reactivate operations and level the mineral production rate required to meet the quotas of the current production period. Social distancing and the use of additional personal protection equipment will mean having fewer personnel at work points in the most critical line of action, this is drilling-blasting-LHD, and therefore it will be necessary to have tele-operated equipment, autonomous vehicles and a new data transmission infrastructure that allows us to interact with our equipment and make them work efficiently and safely. Control rooms will be required for centralized supervision and the incorporation of devices compatible with the "Industrial Internet of Things", a feature that will allow the flow of communications and data transmission required for all equipment to operate in a synchronized manner using or own data network. This will also represent a process of change from management to operators, in which tactical supervision and the use of workers' experience will play a fundamental role for its rapid implementation.