Springs

Cyanophytes were sampled in two surveys, summer 1993 and 1995, in order to compare the algal flora of 19 small springs located in the upper part of the River Sarca catchment (Northern Italy). Measurements of the main physico-chemical variables of the spring water were also carried out. The springs differ largely in altitude (from 1073 to 2130 m a.s.l.), lithology of the aquifer (calcareous/dolomitic mountains in the Brenta and igneous intrusive rocks in the Adamello region), discharge (from less than 1 to 137 l s-1), substrate particle size and exposure. Cyanophytes were present in all the rheocrenes and lacking in the helocrenes. Up to 41 cyanophyte species were observed. The genera Chamaesiphon, Homoeothrix and Phormidium were most frequent and rich in species, with a majority of epilithic taxa occuring mainly in oligotrophic fast flowing mountain streams. Sample grouping as obtained by numerical analysis (TWINSPAN, CANOCO) was mainly explained by lithology and conductivity (separation of siliceous from calcareous substrate). Other variables pointed out by the Canonical Correspondence Analysis were the degree of shading and altitude. Differences among springs are marked, as can be argued from the relation between the high total number of species found (41) and the low diversity (on the average six species) of the single sites. Rare species were mainly found in springs warranting low flow variability at the site of emergence.

In this paper we displayed the problematic of spring design, with usage of CAD/CAE (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Engineering) methods. Spring 3D (Three-dimensional) parametric modeling is performed in CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) software for purposes of achieving fast manipulation of spring geometry, so various spring variants can be made. Using the same software, FEM (Finite Element Method) analysis is used to determine maximum stresses and deflections. Utility of developed parametrized spring system is best reflected for cases of new spring design, where new geometric and FEM models are created with simple parameter application and update feature. This research resulted in spring prototyping with utilization of 3D printing techniques and spring manufacturing.

Integral Abutment bridges (IAB’s) can be defined as bridges without joints. The main purpose of constructing IAB’s is to prevent the corrosion of the structure due to water seepage through joints. The biggest uncertainty in the design of these bridges is the reaction of the soil behind the abutments and next to the foundation piles, especially during thermal expansion. This lateral soil reaction is nonlinear and is a function of the magnitude and nature of the wall displacement.To gain a better understanding of the mechanism of load transfer due to thermal expansion, which is also dependent on the type of the soil adjacent to the abutment walls and piles, a 3D finite element analysis is carried out on representative IAB. In this paper two models are compared one with considering soil interaction and other without soil interaction and live load is applied using STAAD-Beava. The main objective is to study the trends in bending moment, shear force and deflection in central and end long...

A elaboração desse trabalho de caracterização da qualidade das águas, dos rios e das fontes, de delimitação de bacias e de bairros, conduziu-nos a vários caminhos. Em linhas gerais, os procedimentos realizados no âmbito dessa pesquisa implicaram no desenvolvimento das seguintes atividades: a. realização de amplo levantamento bibliográfico e pesquisa em fontes secundárias, com especial ênfase nos dados
censitários e informações relacionadas com a qualidade das águas e acesso aos serviços públicos de saneamento ambiental, produzidos pela Universidade, Prefeitura Municipal de Salvador, Governo do Estado da Bahia, entidades civis e institutos de pesquisa; b. definição de marco teórico-conceitual sobre a problemática das águas e sua inserção no contexto da problemática ambiental de Salvador – com definição dos conceitos estruturantes de bacia hidrográfica, de drenagem e de bairro; c. estruturação da metodologia de pesquisa de delimitação de bacia hidrográfica e de bairro; d. coleta de amostras de água bruta para a caracterização bacteriológica e físico-química nas bacias hidrográficas e medição da vazão; e.
avaliação da qualidade das águas das fontes; f. caracterização das formas de acesso aos serviços públicos de saneamento ambiental por meio de dados censitários e dados da Empresa Baiana de Águas e Saneamento - EMBASA; h. delimitação das bacias hidrográficas, de drenagem natural e dos bairros; e i. realização de levantamento da produção bibliográfica sobre águas nos institutos de pesquisa, faculdades e universidades em Salvador.
É preciso ressaltar que a relação entre bacia e bairro, aqui estabelecida, tem o claro objetivo de estimular a reconstrução dos laços de pertencimento entre o cidadão, o território e suas águas – noção que se encontra materializada em relação ao bairro, mas que se perdeu em relação às águas. Foram
três os critérios de inserção de um bairro em uma determinada bacia: a. que as águas do território circunscrito no bairro confluam para a bacia hidrográfica ou de drenagem; b. que mais da metade do território do bairro esteja contido na bacia; c. que a nascente do corpo d’água de uma determinada bacia
esteja no bairro.

The majority of the 720 historically-known springs in Denmark have been accredited with healing power of supernatural origin, manifested in their names and/or local folklore tradition still supported by cultic rituals celebrated way into the nineteenth century. While only 2.5 per cent of Danish spring names explicitly appear to be of pagan origin, at least 32 per cent were dedicated to Christian saints or named from other ecclesiastical terms, whereas 25 per cent had the religiously neutral name Helligkilde. Based on a case study of spring names in the region of northwestern Sjaelland, the whole question of age is discussed, just as several cases show how spring names and their attached folklore etymology are not always to be taken at face value.

Diatom assemblages in carbonate spring habitats at low elevations, with low discharge, and affected by direct human impacts were studied only recently and in some geographic areas. We describe and characterize the ecology of a new Navicula species from springs with these characteristics within the basin of the River Adige in the south–eastern Alps and Alpine foothills (Province of Verona, Italy). Navicula veronensis sp. nov. is in the group of species around N. cincta but has distinct outline, size, central area, and proximal raphe endings. The availability of data on the distribution of the new species in streams of the Island of Cyprus allowed to quantitatively compare the ecological preferences, niche position, and niche breadth of Navicula veronensis sp. nov. with those of allied species. The new species was found to be characteristic of medium–high conductivity freshwaters, rich in sulphates and chloride, often nitrate enriched and affected by marked discharge fluctuations and seasonal desiccation. Niche position however differed only slightly from those of morphologically–similar species, with the exception of Navicula dealpina that was found to be characteristic of oligotrophic, calcium– bicarbonate rich environments with medium(–low) conductivity. Canonical Correspondence Analysis clearly showed that the most influential environmental variables determining the diatom assemblages of low–elevation carbonate springs affected by anthropogenic disturbance were nitrate enrichment, spring morphology alteration (in particular for water abstraction), and low discharge.

Através de uma compreensão sistêmica da paisagem urbana, a presente dissertação-projeto busca propor estratégias e diretrizes de planejamento paisagístico que fomentem uma ocupação mais integrada entre as dinâmicas urbanas e biofísicas, tendo os córregos e nascentes como agentes ativos e estruturantes desse processo. Utilizando-se como estudo de caso a cidade de Uberlândia, em Minas Gerais, analisa-se aqui o desenvolvimento urbano perante os corpos d’água presentes no território, desde um primeiro momento em que estes eram um atrativo para fixação; até os conflitos posteriores advindos das constantes tentativas de controle e condicionamento da rede hídrica. Partindo assim dos padrões atuais de ocupação urbana no entorno de córregos e nascentes, propõe-se alternativas de planejamento para futuros assentamentos, que incorporem de forma espacial e funcional as potencialidades associadas ao meio biofísico local.

Dissertação de Mestrado Profissional em Arquitetura Paisagística submetida ao Programa de Pós-graduação em Arquitetura Paisagística da Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, como requisito necessário à obtenção do título de Mestre em Arquitetura Paisagística. Orientação: Profa. Dra. Raquel Hemerly Tardin Coelho.

ABSTRACT
Through a systemic understanding of the urban landscape, this dissertation-project seeks to propose landscape planning strategies and guidelines that promote an integrated land use between urban and biophysics dynamics, in which streams and springs (headwaters) are an active and structuring element of this process. Using the city of Uberlandia, in Minas Gerais, as a case study, urban development is analyzed concerning existing water bodies, from the first moment in which they were attractive attributes to settlements until the subsequent conflicts arose from the constant attempts to control and to condition water network. Regarding the current patterns of land use in the surroundings of streams and springs, alternatives of landscape planning to future settlements are proposed to incorporate in a spatial and functional way the potentialities associated to the local biophysical environment.

SULFUR SPRINGS IN THE “GRUPPI DI VOLTRI” OPHIOLITE COMPLEX (ITALY)

The Voltri Group is an Alpine-type ophiolite complex, which have been affected by the Alpine orogenesis and the consequent metamorphism, that completely canceled  the stratigraphic relationships and gave rise to important green schist facies modifications which often make it difficult to recognize the original nature of the rocks.  The most important forming lithotypes are: lherzolites, serpentintinites, metagabbros, prasinites, amphibolites, quartzites, shales: acid crystalline schists are present along the western margin.

Metallic oxides and sulphides are scattered in all lithotypes and locally form discrete massive bodies, such as concentrations of pyrite and chalcopyrite, with other sulphides and sulphosals, in prasinitic rocks and in contact between these and calcescists. However, the most interesting mineralizations are the hydrothermal quartz veins in alterated serpentinites, that form small deposits know in ancient Italian literature as “ydrothermalites”, to day better know as “listwaenites”, or “listvenite” and similar, derived from Russian word.  These are stock-work type deposits, mainly composed by quartz and Ca-Mg carbonates with gold, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, pyrrhotite, and nickel sulphides, cementing crushed breccias near the contact between ultramafics and metabasites, or cutting serpentinites near the above contact. 

The presence of a few sulfur springs was known, many others have been identified by the author, and have been analyzed in order to study the relationship with the mineralizations genesis. In particular, the H2S content was analyzed at the source, with the innovative method of  GOLTELMAN (1974), in the laboratory the contents of the main elements were then analyzed.  All such springs show very similar chemistry; they are medio-mineral  type, and can be comprised in a family of sulfur-alkaline springs on the basis of  their dissolved substances. Some hydrogeological and geochemical conjectures on the origin of the springs, with particular  regard  to  the  H2S,  are  proposed.  The  formation of this one is not attributed  to biogenic  processes,  but  to  chemical  reactions  promoted by the abundance of metalliferous sulfides.

Another sulfur spring, flowing out from cenozoic sediments very close to the Voltri Group, shows different  chemistry and  can  be  comprised  in  a family  of  sulfate-alkaline  earth springs.

Analysis of combined piled raft foundation proves to be an effective tool to bear the stresses and reduce the settlement of the foundation. Efforts have been made to optimize the parameters of pile raft foundation. In order to find economical solution various parameters like spacing of piles and the load imposed on foundation are varied to obtain optimum results. A finite element model of combined piled raft foundation is simulated in SAP-2000 to examine the performance of foundation under various loading conditions. Springs are assigned by discretising the model to simulate soil properties. The model is being validated by comparing result with standard book. This study could be helpful and serve as a guideline for the variation in other parameters like pile length, pile shape, raft thickness and several soil properties.

On the basis of LM and SEM observations as well as of environmental data, three species of the predominantly-acidophilous diatom genus Eunotia (E. cisalpina, E. fallacoides, E. insubrica) are described as new to science, and characterized from the ecological point of view. The three new species were not distinguished from other similar ones in the past but can be identified at the LM by careful observation of diacritical characters such as valve outline (in particular the shape of the endings), dimensions, and stria density. One of the three new species (E. insubrica) presents a very peculiar ultrastructural feature, i.e. well-developed pseudoseptum-like structures at the apices. The three new species were pointed out by detailed analyses of materials sampled in the south-eastern Alps. It is put forward that diatom investigations adopting high-resolution taxonomy are particularly opportune in habitats such as those colonized by the three new species. The three new species were found...

Wells were a definitive way of supplying Athenians with water from the prehistoric time until the early 20th century, which is when major water supply projects in the wider region of the capital were completed. The number of wells we find in the city is very large and indicates the expansion of the city, as well as major events over the period.

The discovery of the pilot wave that creates a simple algorithm that allows access to the Quantum Gravitational Memories. In the Memories are found nearly infinite amounts of data and information presented by the waves in the form of animated high definition hologram videos. This information gives clear and concise explanations of how palindromes combine with gravity to create the cosmological constant, strong and weak force. Introducing entirely new concepts and strong evidence that gravity is the reaction to coiled light wave expansion and these coils when passing through a magnetic field create Alternating Current = to the Cosmological constant of 1 x10^120 .

The biodiversity of algal communities and environmental conditions were investigated in the springs of Mt. Konjuh. The assemblages of 20 springs emerging from different lithologies (limestones and ophiolites, respectively) comprised 234 algal taxa. Diatoms and cyanobacteria were the most species-rich groups. The most common alkaliphilic, circumneutral, and eutraphentic diatoms were represented by the genera Gomphonema, Nitzschia, Navicula, Cymbella, and Achnanthidium, and by the cyanobacterial genus Phormidium. Hierarchical clustering and SIMPROF analysis based on relative algal abundance clustered springs into six groups, separating them mainly according to spring type and lithology. Indicator species for groups and springs on different litholog-ical substrata were singled out, revealing 33 taxa with preferences for ophiolites, and 20 taxa with preferences for carbonates. The values of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index were moderately high per spring location, and similar for the two groups of springs on different lithologies. A higher similarity in species composition was noted between springs on ophiolites and limestones than between springs on ophiolites and other types of siliceous sub-strata. The present study suggests that algal assemblages in springs emerging from ophiolites, even those made up by a preponderance of silicates, should be analyzed separately from those related to springs on other siliceous substrata. The results obtained showed that most of the springs studied are affected by anthropogenic impacts and morphological alterations leading to the dominance of highly competitive meso-and eutraphentic algal species, thus emphasizing the importance of further investigation and conservation of these habitats.

Considering the peculiarities and large variation in the nature of problems associated with water resources planning, development and management, the issues involved in research related to particular region and specific project, there is a provision under National Hydrology Project (NHP) of India is to take up applied and action-oriented R&D studies by the implementing agencies. This article presents the details of purpose driven studies taken up by various implementing agencies under the National Hydrology Project of India.

Cultural historian Elliott Colla proposed in a recent paper that ancient borders, unlike their modern versions, were often roughly hewn, both materially and conceptually. With this he not only refers to the artfully crafted and politically contested nature of borders in antiquity but also cleverly highlights their geological grounding. For the Hittite imperial landscapes, Colla's statement has special resonance, since Hittite frontiers are often discussed with respect to the making of rock reliefs and spring monuments that commemorate the kingship ideology at both politically contested border regions and appropriate local sites of geological wonder and cultic significance such as caves, springs and sinkholes. Treaties were signed and border disputes were settled at these liminal sites where divinities and ancestors of the underworld took part as witnesses. One such monument is the Yalburt Yaylasi Sacred Mountain Spring Monument that features a lengthy Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription put up by the Hittite kings in the countryside. Excavated by the Anatolian Civilisations Museum, Ankara, in the 1970s, the Yalburt Monument near Konya is dated to the time of Tudhaliya IV (1237- 1209 BC). Since 2010, the Yalburt Yaylasi Archaeological Landscape Research Project has investigated the landscapes surrounding the Yalburt Monument. The preliminary results of the extensive and intensive archaeological surveys suggest that the region of Yalburt was a deeply contested frontier, where the Land of Hatti linked to the politically powerful polities of western and southern Anatolia. This paper discusses the nature of a Hittite borderland with respect to settlement programs, monument construction and regional politics.

Energy crisis is a major concern in today's world. As the demand of energy is increasing day by day, so the ultimate solution to deal with these sorts of problems is just to implement the renewable sources of energy. The objective of footstep power generation project is to abstract renewable energy. If this project is installed in highly dense areas such as railway stations, clubs, parks etc. then maximum amount of energy can be abstracted from it. By simply walking on footpath, electricity is generated. Also we are adding piezoelectric crystal on the platform of the footstep to increase power output. This project consists rack and pinion assembly as a driving mechanism. In this project, force energy is converted into electrical energy. The control mechanism consists of the rack & pinion, D.C generator, battery and inverter control. We have discussed the various applications and further extension also. So this project is implemented to all foot step, the power generation is very high.

Karst ecosystems are considered as priority environments for the protection of biodiversity on a global scale. This study provides a first comparative analysis of epilithic diatom flora from karst springs in two Mediterranean geographic areas (Spain and Italy) with contrasting characteristics (islands vs mainland). We investigated twenty-three springs with different anthropogenic impact levels once in the winter season between 2007 and 2017 (N = 23). A total of 176 diatom taxa (56 genera) were found of which 101 (44 genera) were observed in single sites. A general good biotic integrity was revealed by structural indices (species richness, diversity and evenness). However, crenophilous species were generally present and abundant in less impacted springs. Comparing islands and mainland, significant differences were found in species composition and diversity (H') based on multivariate analyses (global R = 0.610; p = 0.001) and t-test (t = 2.304; p = 0.031). Discharge and Cl − were the most significant variables in determining diatom assemblages. Our results confirm the role of springs as multiple ecotones and refuges for rare species and suggest that the geographic insularity may be an important factor in maintaining diatom biodiversity.

The fauna of aquatic and semi-aquatic spring-stream system «The beginnings of the River Lan» was studied. 69 species were found. They belong to 9 classes: Hydrozoa – 1 species, Oligochaeta – 2, Hirudinea – 2, Araneae – 1, Malacostraca – 1, Ostracoda – 4, Insecta – 56, Gastropoda – 1 и Bivalvia – 1 species.

Since several decades diatoms are increasingly used for the assessment of the trophic status of different freshwater ecosystems. However, spring habitats have been only marginally considered concerning this topic. The purpose of this research was to compare the diatom assemblages of two groups of carbonate, low–altitude springs, affected by different levels of anthropogenic disturbances. Between 2005 and 2008, diatoms were sampled in 57 low–altitude, carbonate springs, keeping separate the main microhabitats (stones and bryophytes), and assessing an extensive number of morphological, physical, and chemical variables. Two datasets were considered for the present paper: the first (CESSPA, N = 25) includes carbonate springs located within the River Adige catchment, the second (CRENODAT selected springs, N = 32) includes springs located not exclusively within the same basin, and very similar to the previous ones as regards lithological substratum, altitude range, shading. Trophic and saprobity indices, together with multivariate techniques, were used to assess differences between the diatom assemblages in the two datasets. Indices revealed higher trophic and saprobic levels for the CESSPA springs than for the other group (CRENODAT). Values of the Shannon–Wiener diversity index were similar for the two groups while the average richness was slightly higher in nature–near springs (CRENODAT); higher percentages of endangered or rare taxa (Red List) were found only in the nature–near springs. The main impacts affecting the CESSPA springs were found to be both anthropogenic disturbances, such us water abstraction and spring–bed modification, and higher nitrate values. The importance of the fine tuning of diatom–based bioassessment methods in spring habitats is stressed.

– Springs are unique but understudied habitats. Diatom communities have received some attention but have remained largely unknown in the southwestern Alps. We therefore studied the springs of the southwestern extreme of the Alpine mountain range. We analysed epilithic and epiphytic assemblages in 48 springs of different ecomorpho-logical types, located on contrasting lithological substrata (carbonate/siliceous). Moreover , phytosociological relevés were carried out for carbonate springs. The diatom fl ora consisted of 223 taxa. Most (198) of the taxa were included in the Red List, and 12.5% belonged to threatened categories. Characteristic spring taxa (crenophiles) were present. The ecological preferences of crenophilous diatom species described in the eastern Alps were confi rmed. Diatom species characteristic of the lake-littoral zone were found in pool springs. We observed no signifi cant differences in species richness and diversity between epilithic and epiphytic assemblages, but some species showed a preference for bryophytes, and fi ve occurred in the epibryon only. As regards moisture conditions, 15% of the taxa occurred on wet or temporarily dry sites, and 4% lived mostly outside water bodies. The main environmental factors infl uencing diatom assemblages were pH, conductivity, altitude , and shading. The carbonate-substratum crenic vegetation was composed of a mixture of vascular plants and bryophytes, which fi nd their ecological optimum in springs. Bryo-phyte cover was dominant, with the most abundant taxa belonging to the genus Palustri-ella. The vegetation corresponded to the Cratoneuretum commutati association.

Places are small, culturally significant locales that exist within a landscape. They are meaningful to specific cultural groups through everyday experience and shared stories associated with them. Places therefore gather a vast range of things in their microcosm: both animate and inanimate entities, residues, materials, knowledges, and stories. The material residues and cultural associations that cluster around places run deep in their temporality. Places are then generated and maintained by a spectrum of locally specific practices, from the situated activities of daily users of space, on the one hand, to the grandiose interventions of the political elite on the other. Combined, these social practices continually produce hybrid material forms and spatial configurations over time, and anchor communities to particular locales with a sense of cultural belonging. They become assemblages of shared memories, always pregnant for improvised events, despite the common essentialist notion of local places as static or conservative. Places thus serve as meaningful nexuses of human interaction, and as sites of immediate everyday experience. This edited volume is the outcome of a workshop/colloquium that tookplace at Brown University in March 2008, with the title Drawing on Rocks, Gathering by the Water: Archaeological Fieldwork at Rock Reliefs, Sacred Springs and Other Places. That event was intended to bring together academics who worked on similar questions concerning archaeological landscapes across the globe and specifically to focus on the making and unmaking of places of human interaction such as rock reliefs, sacred springs and lakes, cairns, ruins, and other meaningful places. The colloquium also provided a platform to discuss the experiences, the challenges, and the theoretical implications of working in the field and specifically at such unusual sites and landscapes. The intention was to bring to the table new archaeological perspectives on working at geologically and culturally distinctive locales where the particular geologies are encountered and uniquely reworked by local practices. This chapter is an introduction to the anthology of articles gathered under this topic.

This paper presents the development and implementation of integrated intelligent CAD (computer aided design) system for design, analysis and prototyping of the compression and torsion springs. The article shows a structure of the developed system named Springs IICAD (integrated intelligent computer aided design). The system bounds synthesis and analysis design phases by means of the utilization of parametric 3D (three-dimensional) modeling, FEM (finite element method) analysis and prototyping. The development of the module for spring calculation and system integration was performed in the C# (C Sharp) programming language. Three-dimensional geometric modeling and structural analysis were performed in the CATIA (computer aided three-dimensional interactive application) software, while prototyping is performed with the Ultimaker 3.0 3D printer with support of Cura software. The developed Springs IICAD system interlinks computation module with the basic parametric models in such a way that spring calculation, shaping, FEM analysis and prototype preparation are performed instantly.

It is thought that long-term monitoring is an essential tool through which conservationists and managers (i) are alerted when the system departs from the natural state, (ii) can check their environmental policy, and (iii) can detect disturbance effects. However, while long-term studies are growing in number, the lack of information on the background rates of natural changes could lead to a biased interpretation of results. In this study we analyzed the diatom composition of yearly samples (14 –16 yrs) in four springs with the following goals: (1) to estimate the consequences of sampling-related processes on the species composition and relative abundance; (2) to determine the form of the assemblages' variation, evaluating whether the assemblages can be predicted by cyclic, directional, or stochastic changes; (3) to test if, and to what extent, the diatom variability (variation in species composition, relative abundance and diversity) on a temporal scale is driven by the environment; (4) to evaluate the degree of temporal concordance among the diatom assemblages inhabiting four springs. Results showed that because the effect of sampling was inversely proportional to the species abundances, the presence of the least abundant species over the years were mainly a result of chance. The analyses allowed us to discriminate between stochastic and directional patterns, revealing the ongoing changes in two out of four springs. Because the environmental variables did not explain a significant portion of this variability, other hypotheses are put forward. The assemblages' dynamics of species composition over time were significantly synchronous in two out of six couples of springs, and regardless of the environment. This result can suggest that internal, within springs, drivers may be more important than extrinsic forces operating over regional spatial scales. Overall, these results provide a benchmark of diatom variability over time and in natural conditions delimiting the " limits of acceptable changes " .

Groundwater in the hills and mountains is manifested as springs, the major water sources for people in Nepal's mountainous regions. The aim of this study was to investigate the seasonal variations of in-situ groundwater physicochemical parameters, evaluate groundwater hydrochemistry with respect to water types, and identify groundwater chemistry control mechanisms by analyzing spring water. The area's geology is dominated by schist and gneiss. Depression and fracture springs occur widely. The study involved observation of seasonal variations in in-situ physicochemical parameters, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), and temperature, and major ion concentrations-Ca 2þ , Mg 2þ , Na þ , K þ , HCO 3 À , Cl À , SO 4 2À-to describe the water's chemical characteristics. The seasonal variations in physicochemical parameters arose mainly from monsoonal precipitation and its interactions with host rocks. Chemical analysis showed that Ca-HCO 3 type water dominated, indicating shallow aquifer groundwater processes. The relative abundance of cations was, in order, Ca 2þ. Na þ. Mg 2þ. K þ and of anions HCO 3 À. Cl À. SO 4 2À. Lithological contributions from the interactions of rocks with water across spring flow networks were the major mechanisms controlling spring water chemistry. Highlights • Springs are major sources of drinking water mainly in rural and semi-urban areas as well as in the surroundings of urban areas in the middle hill region of Nepal. Spring water quality dynamics in different seasons also affect human health. Therefore, spring water quality and seasonal variations of spring water quality become very important to assess for increasing water security of rural populations in Nepal. Moreover, springs are also major sources of non-snowfed rivers during the lean season, maintaining base flows. Thus, it is very important to understand how spring discharge variation is happening in a watershed. • This manuscript investigates the spring discharge, quality of spring water in the Indrawati River. The Indrawati River is a major tributary of the Melamchi River, depending on which a major drinking water supply project to Kathmandu Valley is almost completed. • The in-situ physicochemical water quality parameters along with major cations and anions are determined with spring discharge of the area providing new insights; how water and rock interactions generate ultimate water quality of spring water is highlighted. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited

Human arm is a very crucial organ which allows us to perform important day to day activities like lifting any object, dressing up, eating, clenching, gripping something to name a few of them. Since it is so important for us that this organ functions well, so if in an accident or due to any other reason the arm gets damaged, life becomes very difficult. This artificial human arm will enable such physically challenged people to perform all these day to day activities. Not only this, this can also be used as an extra attachment in various robotic machines to enhance their efficiency. We have used chains, springs, wood and servo motors for its construction and it can perform the tasks like clinching of fist and curling of fingers very efficiently. Another positive point is that the size has been kept really compact as compared to the currently available humanoid arm. This is well equipped to perform human interactive tasks.

This thesis contains two areas of research. The first part contributes to the field of engineering mechanics. This research investigates the thermomechanical shape memory behavior of shape memory alloy (SMA) springs. As SMA springs undergo stress- and/or temperature-induced phase transformation, they experience varying combinations of axial, bending, and torsional stresses. A deeper understanding of the complex, three-dimensional state of stress within SMA springs, in combination with models of their actuation, will enable expanded application of SMA springs as actuators in a variety of industries. As such, the overall objective of this work is to comprehensively understand and model the thermomechanical behavior of SMA springs.

Experiments are performed on commercially-available SMA tension springs in order to explore the force-stretch-temperature design space. Two primary types of experiments are performed, isothermal loading and constant-load thermal actuation, on both virgin and cycled specimens. Experimental results are used to derive ther- momechanical models that both describe the homogenized uniaxial behavior and the local, multi-axial distributions of stress and strain in the wire cross-section. Experimental studies of repeated thermal cycling are used to derive models both for virgin SMA springs and for their use in applications that require repetitive actuation.

Over the course of this work, detailed experiments enhance the understanding of the fundamental mechanics behind the actuation of SMA springs as well as the crystallographic phases through which the material passes. Additionally, thermomechanical models of SMA spring actuators enable expanded applications in aerospace, biomedical, and other industries.

The second part of this thesis addresses issues of equity within engineering educational systems. Higher educational programs in engineering today are seeking to correct disproportionately low enrollment and success rates of minoritized students. However, most diversity-related programming fails to address systems of structural oppression that cause particular students to be underrepresented in higher education. In this work, critical and liberative theories are applied to engineering educational systems to re-frame the problems with and goals of diversity, equity, and inclusion within engineering education from the lenses of Freirean critical theory, which is class-based, and other anti-oppressive theories based on race, gender, and sexual orientation.

This educational research has theoretical, quantitative, and qualitative components. To contribute to existing critical and liberative theories, two new models are proposed, one situating these theories relative to one another within the broader classification of identity-based theories, and another that provides example of the application of these theories to engineering systems. In a quantitative study, the disproportionately low outcomes of marginalized undergraduate students studying engineering at a highly selective public university are examined. Qualitative analyses of multiply marginalized students at this university determine some of the mechanisms through which these outcomes are occurring.

Societal structures, such as sexism, racism, and capitalism, have filtering effects that impact the opportunities available to individuals with marginalized identities throughout their lives. In order to correct inequities in engineering education, the role of current educational systems in the perpetuation of systems of oppression must be addressed. As incremental interventions fail to address the roots of these problems, they cannot remove the obstacles facing marginalized students. The true solution lies in the collective liberation of all marginalized people from oppressive social structures. This work thus examines the role engineering education can and must play in the liberation of humanity from structural oppression.

India’s springs are vulnerable to extinction and current practices are inadequate to deal with springshed management. Better demand and supply-side management, greater institutional convergence, improved capacities, and an empowered community are key elements of a new paradigm in springshed management in India. Arghyam’s ‘Springs Initiative’ is an open platform where practitioners, academics, government departments, and donors can come together and craft an agenda for the revival of springs and an overarching template for springshed management in India.

The study of settlements at thermal springs in ancient Italy has allowed us to analyse not only the healing and recreational establishments built near the springs, but also the worship places and ex voto dedicated to the aquae. This contribution offers some reflections on the material and structural types of these sacred spaces attested in the Italian peninsula, concluding with some observations on the deities attested at the springs and those who appear to be almost absent.

Although neglected for a long time by freshwater-ecology research, springs are very important habitats for biodiversity conservation. They are multiple ecotones, and are characterized by a remarkable variety of environmental conditions (e.g., from highlyshaded to UV exposed, from permanent discharge to intermittent flow, from still water to strong currents, from extremely-soft to carbonate-precipitating water, etc.). Moreover, springs are often amongst the last high-integrity, oligotrophic freshwater habitats in densely populated areas. Because of the high quality of their waters, the main impact affecting springs is capturing and water diversion. Climate-change driven reduction in precipitations in many areas is likely to determine an aggravation of this impact. It is thus important to document the rich and peculiar biodiversity of springs, also to establish reference conditions for bioassessment methods. Especially in non-acidic springs with running water, and coarse lithic substrata, cyanobacteria are often one of the most taxa-rich and abundant groups of photoautotrophs. The relatively-scarce information available in the literature is mostly referred to similar habitats, and not to spring habitats in the narrower sense. Papers dealing with the cyanobacteria of ambient springheads (=eucrenal) worldwide are still very rare. These were reviewed separating ambient springs in temperate and warm climate, and with special attention to key species, to cyanobacterial strategies allowing survival in oligotrophic headwaters (e.g., nitrogen fixation, phosphatases, anti-UV compounds, etc.), and to distribution patterns. The review also hopes to bolster new interest and research on this topic, and suggests some promising research directions.

Karst ecosystems are considered as priority environments for the protection of biodiversity on a global scale. This study provides a first comparative analysis of epilithic diatom flora from karst springs in two Mediterranean geographic areas (Spain and Italy) with contrasting characteristics (islands vs mainland). We investigated twenty-three springs with different anthropogenic impact levels once in the winter season between 2007 and 2017 (N = 23). A total of 176 diatom taxa (56 genera) were found of which 101 (44 genera) were observed in single sites. A general good biotic integrity was revealed by structural indices (species richness, diversity and evenness). However, crenophilous species were generally present and abundant in less impacted springs. Comparing islands and mainland, significant differences were found in species composition and diversity (H’) based on multivariate analyses (global R = 0.610; p = 0.001) and t-test (t = 2.304; p = 0.031). Discharge and Cl− were the m...

Springs become a particular kind of hydrogeological heritage, since they encompass natural, cultural, architectural
and immaterial interest. Springs are a prominent feature of popular identity in the municipality of Sant Hilari Sacalm (Les
Guilleries massif, Girona, Catalonia), because of their historical contribution to the local economy. This work summarizes
the results of an updated catalog which has listed and characterized up to 206 springs. They have been classified under
hydrogeological and hydro-chemical criteria. Estimative hydric balance in most of the springs reveals that they are placed
in areas of the massif with effective net recharge to the granitic aquifer, although many of them are subjected to impact of
groundwater extractions or percolating water interception due to forestry activities. The study has characterized all the heritage
elements related to the springs and the nearby surroundings that contribute to their value. It also has identified those
threats and impacts that may endanger the available water in terms of quantity and quality and the environmental value of
the spring sites. This work is intended as a tool for management, conservation and divulgation of springs as natural and
cultural heritage.

An Euastrum species (Conjugatophyceae, Streptophyta) was found in an agricultural ditch fed by a rheocrenic, slightly-hot spring ‘Ain El-Balad’ in the El-Farafra Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt. Morphotaxonomic diagnosis and autecology of this desmid species are hereby documented in detail and compared to other morphologically similar species and infraspecific taxa, particularly those of the species complex E. spinulosum. As compared to most other species of that complex, the newly described Euastrum species is mainly characterized by its distinctive small-sized cells, rather shallow and widely open invaginations between the semicell lobes and less pronounced apical lobes. Moreover, the basal lobes are broadly rounded and larger than the lateral lobes. We have named this interesting species E. elfarafraense sp. nov . after the type locality , the El-Farafra Oasis.