Control valve - an overview

Introduction:

Control valve is the heart of any process control system. It helps in controlling the
process by throttling the flow through it, thereby acting as variable resistance in the
process.

Principle:
Incompressible fluid flowing inside a pipe passes through narrower area, accelerates by
converting internal energy pressure head into velocity head. After passing the restriction,
the velocity is again converted to pr. Head. But some of this pr. Cannot be recovered.
Hence across any change in flowing area there is always some pr. Loss. Control valves
function on the above basis.

control valve varies the pressure drop by relatively moving an element ( valve plug
) against a fixed opening ( valve seat ).

Basis of control valve sizing: ( incompressible fluids)

Basis: bernouilli’s theorem

P1 p2
U1 u2
A1 a2

u2² - u1² = 2 gh

Expressing velocity interms of flowrate and area in the above equation and ignoring non-
ideal influences, results in
Q = cv  ∆p/ g - basic liquid sizing equation

Where

Q= theoretical flow rate

Cv = experimentally determined coefficient of valve

and is equivalent to water flow rate in usgpm when the pr.drop across the full
open valve is maintained at 1 psi.
∆p = pressure drop across the valve

G = specific gravity

Basis of sizing ( compressible fluids ) :

In the case of compressible fluids ( gases, vapors ), these fluids expand on pr. Drop and
hence the specific weight of the fluid changes. Hence the above equation is to be
modified to include the expansion factor and when expressed in weight units .

w = cv y ∆p γ1
This formula is useful when the stream density is known. The same equation if
expressed in volumetric units will be

Qg = cv y p1 x / gg t1z
Density term is calculated based on density at inlet pr. And temp to that at base
conditions and z is the compressiblity factor which accounts for realgas behaviour.

The above gives an overall picture of sizing of valves for liquids and gases. However
there are two important phenomena associated with liquid flow based on pr. Recovery
characteristics at the downstream of valves.

1. Cavitation
2. flashing

Cavitation :

Cavitation is a two stage phenomena :

Stage 1 : formation of vapor bubbles in the flow stream when pr. At vena contracta <
vapor pressure of liquid.
Stage 2 : disintegration / implosion of vapor bubbles downstream of valve when pr.
Recovery is > vapor pr of liquid.

How does cavitation affects the control valve ?

Cavitation affects the performance in three ways:

A.physical damage to valve plug and seat:

stage 2 mentioned above results in high velocity liquid jets impinging on valve surface
and due to high pressure, the material is eroded away at the point of impact. This
mechanical erosion is also followed by chemical corrosion if the valve material is
incompatible with the fluid.

B.reduction of valve coefficient due to choked flow:

Stage 1 of cavitation contributes in a major part . Also when the stream approaches &
reaches sonic velocity at the venacontracta , no further increase in flow is observed with
increase in pr. Drop across valve leading to choked flow.

C.excessive noise and vibration :

Noise is generated when the vapor bubbles implode in the liquid stream and this noise is
similar to water and gravel passing thru’ a pipe.
Vibration is due to impact of collapsing bubbles against the valve body and associated
piping.

Methods available to counteract the above effects:

I
1. Increasing the upstream pressure so that pressure drop does not go below vapor
pressure of liquid. This may be possible by moving the valve closer to pump
discharge . However, this needs to be reviewed primarily by process designer.
2. Hard facing / stelliting of valve trim . This increases the resistance to mechanical
erosion.
3. To achieve the pr. Drop in no. Of stages and have a tortuous flow path wherein
vapor genenration is prevented as the energy is used to flow thru the valve.
Eg: cage style trim with no. Of small holes for flow path.
 Choose low pr. Recovery style of valve so that vapor formed does not convert back to
liquid. Eg. Globe valve
Avoid high pr. Recovery valves like ball, butterfly valves for cavitating applications.

Flow coefficient :

In order to ensure that the valve passes the rated amount of fluid, it is necessary to
use that value of pr. Drop which causes choking in the sizing equation . This value is
less than the pr. Drop assigned by process to be dropped across the valve and can
be calculated using the formula given below:

∆ps =

Noise and vibration:

Noise level can be brought under acceptable limits by use special trim “ lo-db” trim
wherein the energy is dissipated by using it to flow thru specially designed tortuous
flowpath.

Vibration as such may be controlled by proper designing of supports.

Flashing
Flashing is the phenomena when the liquid is transformed to vapor based on pr. Drop
and it continues to be in vapor phase downstream of valve since the pr. Is still less
than the vapor pressure of the liquid.

This results in :

Excessive damage to piping downstream of valve :

This is due to high exit velocities at valve outlet , which erodes away the pipe material.

Reduction of flow coefficient

This is due to choked flow when the velocity approaches sonic velocity as already
discussed under cavitation.

Methods to counteract flashing effects:

Use “∆ps for sizing as outlined under cavitation. Select valve body size based on
velocity limits at valve outlet. It is general practice to limit velocity to 0.3 mach ( approx.
110 m/s ) in case of gases and 10 m/s for liquids.

In the case of flashing fluids generally accepted velocity limit is the average of liq and
gas velocity limits i.e. 60 m/s . Valve trim is selected based on sizing and valve body
based on velocity limitations.

Caution :

Generally flashing is accompanied by lowering of temperature across the valve and hence
proper care to be taken to choose material which is compatible for low temperatures.
This drop in temperature results in ice formation on the valve body when in service and
hence extended bonnets have to be specified for such valves.
Construction of control valves:

Control valve may be broadly split into two subassemblies:

1. Body subassembly
2. Actuator subassembly

Body assembly:

This is the pressure containment chamber wherein flow throttling is achieved. This houses
all process wetted parts and shall be rated for line conditions. Some commonly used
material along with application is given in annexure . The components are:

Valve plug, valve seat, valve stem, bonnet/ top closure and packing assembly.

Valve plug and seat: these together are known as trim and the machining and physical
construction of these decide the valve characteristics.
Eg: valve plug - globe style valve seat - circular often used equal % valve
Valve plug - full bore ball valve seat - circular used as on-off valve.

Valve stem : this connects the plug to the actuating element.

Bonnet : in the case of globe valves, this is the top closure which seals the valve from
atmosphere and it also houses the packing assembly.

Packing: the primary purpose of packing is to prevent leakage of process along the valve
stem to the atmosphere in case of pressurised application. In the case of vacuum
application the packing prevents the leakage of outside atmosphere into the process.

Properties of packing:
Packing shall be flexible enough to seal any leakage and also it shall not offer undue
friction to valve stem movement.
Since this is a wetted part, the material shall be suitable for the process fluid, process
temperature and pressure. If suitable packing matl. Is not available for process temp.,
Sometimes the location of packing may be shifted away from the body by use of
extended bonnets to minimise the process temp. Effect on packing.
Some commonly used packing material with their fluid and temp. Limits are given in
annexure.
Special packing is resorted when the fluid handled is highly hazardous / toxic w.r.t
personnel safety. One such arrangement is shown below:

Two sets of packing are used with an intermediate space either purged with an inert
fluid at a pr. Higher than process pressure.

Classification of valves based on body style as:

Refer attached sheet for constructional details :
Globe valve - excellent for throttling, cavitating/ flashing appl. Since low recovery valve
Butterfly valve - excellent for on-off and large line sizes and for min. Pr. Drop appl. Due
to high recovery characteristics. Used for control also
Ball valve - excellent for on-off and slurry services, high recovery characteristics. Used for
control application also.
Plug valve : solid handling or congealing service, basically on-off application
Saunders valve: excellent for highly corrosive services and fda application since it is
devoid of any pockets where matl. Can accumulate..

Actuator subassembly :

This comprises :
Actuator spring : helps in achieving fail safe position in case of air failure .
Actuator stem : this gets coupled to the valve stem therby the actuation is transferred to
the plug.
Pressure responsive element: this element transmits the external force against the spring
to the valve stem.

Classification of actuators:
 Based on external force as:
1. Pneumatic actuators - spring & diaphragm , piston ( single acting, double acting,
rack & pinion )
2. Electric actuators - motor operated
Based on type of motion /link to valve stem:
1. Sliding stem ( spring & diaphragm )
2. Rotary stem ( rack & pinion)

Flow characterisitics of control valve :

This is the relation of valve opening to the flow rate thru the valve when the pressure
drop is maintained constant. There are three main types based on flow characteristics:
1. Quick opening
2. Linear
3. Equal percentage

the graph showing various characteristics is given below.

%OPENING
 % FLOW RATE

From the graph it is evident that :

Quick opening valve has a high gain at low lifts and achieves the max. Flow limit well
before the full open condition.

Linear has a constant gain wherein the flow thru the valve is proportional to the
opening.

Equal percentage has low gain at low flows and increases when it operates near the
high end of the valve. This is excellent for good controllability and is widely specified .

Inherent vs installed flow characteristics:

The above characteristics at constant pr. Drop are called as inherent flow characteristics.
In practical applications, the pr. Drop across the valve varies based on other system
parameters and the flow characteristics under such conditions is called as installed
characteristics. Ratio of valve pr. Drop in relation to total system pr. Drop is the pr. Drop
ratio factor.
It is observed that in practical applications , inhetrent flow characteristics behave as:
Linear behaves as quick opening as smaller portions of total system pr.drop is taken
across the valve.
Equal percentage becomes more linear with decreasing pr. Drop across the valve and
hence most desirable for control.

Equal percentage characteristics is recommended if:

Major portion of system drop is not available across the valve
Pressure drop is high at low flows and viceversa.

Linear charactersitics is recommended if major portion of system drop is available thru

the valve.
 Valve selection based on application

The primary criteria is the type of fluid, phase of fluid to be handled:

Single phase - liquid liquid - cavitating/ flashing gas

corrosive - spl . Matl spl. Valve trim
for wetted parts spl valve matl
extended bonnet
Toxic - special seal higher body size with
bellows seal reduced trim
low recovery valve style

S.no. Process application Required valve features Commonly used valve

1. Batch process: food & pharmaceutical No dead pockets Ball / butterfly
Quick cleaning
Suitable for steam
sterilisation
Handle slurries

2. Continuous process : Material compatibility with Lined valves for large

Corrosive application fluid line sizes.
Caustic service Sealing of toxic fluid
Chlorine service Economy of valve Bellow seal valves
Special valves eg.
Hastelloy valves in
caustic when it is
economical
S.no. Process application Required valve features Commonly used valve

3. Continuous process: ( solidifying Material should withstand Nace certified ball

service) eg: corrosion valves with steam
Sulphur recovery unit in refinery No cold pockets which jacketing are ideal for
can lead to solidification this service.

4. Continuous process: Should withstand erosive Ball valve

Petrochemical - eg: hdpe slurry slurry Butterfly & plug valve
for on-off control
5. Continuous process : Solid handling Eccentric plug valves
Petrochemical - solid handling eg : Should ensure proper Knife gate valves
hdpe closure and self cleaning Scraping seat ball
of seating surfaces valves
6. Fire - safe application To ensure safe position Fire safe ball valves
of valve even in case of
fire

Annexure - i
 Valve body
S.no. Common name Casting as per Forging as per astm Typical application
astm code code
1. Carbon steel A 216 gr wcb Astm a 105 Water

2. Low temperature A 352 gr lcb Astm a 350 gr lf1, Refrigerant service eg

carbon steel lf2 ammonia at < 10deg
c
3. Ss 316 Astm a 351 gr cf8m Astm a 182 gr f316 Corrosive appl.
Eg. Sulphur
4. Ss 304 Astm a 351 gr cf8 Astm a 182 gr f 304 Dm water
5. Alloy steel Astm a 217 gr wc6 Astm a 182 gr f11 Power plant- steam ,
boiler feed water
service

Astm a 217 gr wc9

Astm a 182 gr f22
6. Hastelloy A494 - Caustic appl.

Annexure - ii

Packing material
S. No. Packing material Features Application
1. Ptfe ( teflon) Used upto 230 deg c Water, ammonia

2. Grafoil High temp. Limit upto 450 deg

c
Offers more friction for stem
movement