PLANT DESIGN

FOR
<SOAP MANUFACTURING>

REPORT SUBMITTED

BY

<MAHIMA BAID>
<SOURAV DUTTA>

< (12616006029)>

< (12616006053)>
TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF

TECHNOLOGY IN

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

< SULAGNA CHATTERJEE >

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to our guide Prof. (Dr.) Sulagna Chatterjee for her inspiring
guidance and sharing her experience and for her exemplary perseverance and hospitality. We
would like to admit our deep sense of gratitude for her constant guidance and cooperation
throughout the work. We sincerely acknowledge her for extending her valuable guidance, support
for literature, critical reviews of reports and above all the moral support she had provided to us
during this project.

<Mahima Baid>

<12616006029>

<Sourav Dutta>

<12616006053>
 Contents
Section Topic Page Number
number
1 Problem Statement 1
2 Briefing on the utility of the present topic in
2
terms of environmental aspect/supply-
demand aspect
5
3 Schematic Flow Sheet of the process
4 Material Balance
4.1 <Saponification> 7
4.2 <Static Separator> 8
10
4.3 <Washing Column>
11
4.4 <Centrifuge>
13
4.5 <Neutralizer>
15
4.6 <Dryer>
5 Energy Balance
5.1 <Saponification> 17

5.2 <Washing Column> 18

19
5.3 <Centrifuge>
20
5.4 <Neutralizer>
21
5.5 <Dryer>
6 Equipment Design 25
7 Layout of the plant 38
8 Cost Estimation (Optional) 43

9 Hazard Identifications 51
52
10 Safety Measures
55
11 Troubleshooting
 Section 1: Problem Statement

To design a plant to manufacture 50 tones/day of toilet soap

The processes we need to go through in order to achieve the main objective and these are as follows:

To select a suitable process for the manufacture of toilet soap, draw a process flow chart, calculate for
material and energy balance for all the equipment in the plant, select a suitable site for the plant,
determine the economic analysis of the plant, identification of hazards and briefing the safety
measures.

1|Page
 Section 2: Briefing on the utility of the present topic in
terms of environmental aspect/supply-demand aspect

Soap is a salt of a fatty acid [1]. Soap is mainly used for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but soaps are
also important components of lubricants. Soaps for cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or
animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides:
three molecules of fatty acids attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, often
lye, promotes a chemical reaction known as saponification. In saponification, fats are broken down
(hydrolyzed) yielding crude soap. Fats are transformed into salts of fatty acids and glycerol is
liberated, leaving glycerin as a byproduct. Soaps are key components of most lubrication greases,
which are usually emulsions of calcium and lithium soaps in a mineral oil. Lithium-based greases are
widely used. Many other metal ions are used, including aluminum, sodium, and mixtures of various
metal ions. Such soaps are sometimes classified as thickeners, meaning that they elevate the viscosity
of the oil. In ancient times, lubricating greases were prepared by the addition of lime to olive oil.

Toilet Soaps, to this class belongs to the finer kinds of scented soaps, which have emollient
properties. They are rarely made direct by the perfumer, the body or basis being a well-selected white
soap, subsequently cleaned and purified. For the choicest grades, the body should be made of a
mixture of olive and sweet-almond oil, as the fat stock. Lard and beef tallow make the next best
stock; and for palm soap a small quantity of bleached palm oil is to be added to them. Cocoa oil and
pale-yellow resin saponaceous matters also enter into the composition of certain toilet soaps. These
body soaps may be obtained as wanted from any well-conducted soap factory. To be adapted to the
purposes of perfumery they must be perfectly neutral, firm, free from unpleasant odor and all
tendency to crust in cold, or sweat in damp weather. They should, moreover, give a rich lather
without wasting too rapidly in the water. Soaps, generally, in their original condition, are usually
deficient in many of those points; and must, for the purposes of perfumery, undergo a refining process
.
[2]

In this project work along with the material and energy balance, the costing, the plant location and
layout for manufacturing plant with safety measures are included.

2|Page
3|Page
Soaps and Detergents are cleaning products that have become an essential part in our daily lives.
Cleaning products play an essential role by safely and effectively removing dirt, germs and other
contaminants, and thus promote a hygienic lifestyle. The first recorded manufacture of soap was
in 600BC, when Pliny the Elder described its manufacture by the Phoenicians from goats’ tallow
and ash, and it was known among the British Celts and throughout the Roman Empire. However,
these people used their soap medicinally, and it was not until the second century AD that it was
used for cleaning, and not until the nineteenth century that it began to be commonly used in the
Western world.
Soap has numerous applications in our daily life. One of its great values is keeping our
household a far better place to live and work . However, contrary to what one may think, soap
[3-4]

was invented not only for the purpose of personal hygiene; rather, it was invented to solve other
purposes. Colorful yarns were valued very early in the history of textiles; wool as it comes from
the sheep is coated with a layer of grease that interferes with the application of dyes, soap was
used to solve this problem. Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it hard to imagine a
time when people were kept sweet-smelling by the action of perfume rather than soap. The
market is littered over with several leading national and global brands and a large number of
small brands which have limited markets.

The Soap and industry are profoundly lucrative with splendid market potential as well as bright
future scope. In order to meet the requirement of market demand, many more new units are
recommended to be established on small and cottage scale.
Toilet soaps account for the largest single share of about 10% in the Rs 480 billion FMCG
market. The toilet soap market is getting saturated at a high penetration level of 98% and is
growing at a very modest rate. The toilet soap, once only an urban phenomenon, has now
penetrated practically in all areas including remote rural areas. The incremental demand flows
from population increase and rise in the usage norm impacted as it is by a greater concern for
hygiene. Increased sales revenues would also expand from up-gradation of quality or per unit
value.
The market is expected to grow at rates ranging from under 4% to around 4.5%. These are very
modest rates considering that the lifestyles not only of urbanites, but even of well-off rural folks

4|Page
are changing at a very high pace. The leader in the toilet soap category, HLL enjoys a high
market share.
Toilet soaps, despite their divergent brands, are not well differentiated by the consumers. It is,
therefore, not clear if it is the brand loyalty or experimentation lured by high volume media
campaign, which sustains them. A consequence is that the market is fragmented and mercurial. It
is obvious that this must lead to a highly competitive market.

SUPPLY OF LAUNDRY SOAP (TONNES)

Laundry soap, which is used for cleaning clothes as well as household utensils, is
necessity in urban households. The demand for the product is, therefore, mainly associated with
urbanization. The country’s requirement for laundry soap has been met through domestic
production and import. During the period under reference, total supply averaged at 64,293 tones,
of which 12,301 tones constituted domestic production and the remaining 14,992 tones is met
from imports. Thus, on the average, domestic production accounted for 44 per cent of the
country's requirement for laundry soap, indicating much of the demand for the product (56%) is
still met through imports.

Assuming supply was driven by demand, the average annual supply of laundry soap for
the period which constitutes domestic production and imports is considered as the effective
demand for the product for the year 2002. Since the consumption of laundry soap is associated
with the growth of urban population, the demand for the product is assumed to grow by 4% that
corresponds to the annual growth rate of the urban population. The demand for laundry soap for
the year 2004 is, thus, estimated at 29,520 tones [5-6].
The demand for laundry soap is projected based on the 4% annual growth rate of the urban
population which is the major user of the product. The existing soap factories in the country, on
the average, cover 44 per cent of the supply of the product.

5|Page
Section 3: Process Flow Diagram of Soap Production

6|Page
 Section 4: Material Balance

1. The process is an open system

2. The process occurs at a steady-state condition [7-11].

Plant Attainment

This is defined as the percentage of available hours in a year that the plant operates usually
between 90-95%. The process plant will operate three shifts of 8 hours per day.

The total downtime (maintenance, shutdowns, and holidays) will take 35 days per year.

330 days 24hours = 7920 hours

1 year 1 day

Basis chosen is in kg/hr

Productivity is 50 tons per day

In a year, productivity is 50tonnes x 330 days = 16500 tons per year

Converting,

16500 tons 1 year 1-day 1000kg

1 year 330 days 24 hours 1 ton

16500,000 kg
=
7920 hr

= 2083.333 kg /hr

7|Page
4.1 < Saponification vessel >

The raw materials are continually fed into a reactor in fixed proportions.

These ingredients alone would give a low water,

high glycerin soap. Soap needs to be about 30%
water to be easily pumpable, and even then, needs
to be held at around 70oC, so excess lye is added to
hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the
glycerin. The lye added is known as "half spent
lye" and is the lye discharged from the washing
column. This lye already contains some glycerin,
but it is further enriched by that formed in the saponification reaction.
Reaction: (C17H35COO) C3H5 + 3NaOH 3[C17H35COONa] + C3H5(OH)3

Mass of soap to be produced = 2083.33kg/hr

Molecular weight of soap = 306g/mol

n = 2083.33kg mol 1000g

hr 306g 1kg
= 2083330
306
= 6808.27mol/hr

Hence,

1 mol Tallow 6808.27mol/hr

3mol Soap
= 2269.42mol/hr
But,
n= m/M m=n*M
8|Page
m = 2269.42mol 324g 1kg
hr mol 1000g

= 735293.16
1000
= 735.29kg/hr
Also,
n(NaOH) = n(Soap)
n(NaOH) = 6808.29

m=n×M
= 6808.29mol 40g 1kg
Hr mol 1000g
= 272.33kg/hr
Amount of lye to be used at the saponification vessel = 2700kg/hr

INPUT OUTPUT
Amount Amount
Component Component
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)

Tallow 735.29 Wet soap 3707.62

NaOH 272.33    

Lye 2700    
Total 3707.62 Total 3707.62

9|Page
4.2 < Static Separator >

The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" -

a settling vessel which does not use any
mechanical action. The soap / lye mix is
pumped into the tank where it separates out on
the basis of weight. The spent lye settles to the
bottom from where it is piped off to the
glycerin recovery unit, while the soap rises to the top and is piped away for further processing.

Duty: separates the soap from the lye.

Type: a settling vessel which does not use any mechanical action

Material of Construction: carbon steel

Wet soap = Lye + Crude soap

Lye = Wet soap – Crude soap
Lye = 3707.48 – 3672.4
Lye = 35.08kg/hr

INPUT OUTPUT

Componen Amount Component Amount

t (kg/hr) (kg/hr)

Wet soap 3707.62 Crude soap 3672.4

Lye 35.22

Total 3707.62 Total 3707.62

10 | P a g e
4.3 <Washing column >

The soap still contains most of its glycerin at this stage, and this is removed with fresh lye in a
washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap solution is added near the
bottom of the column and the lye near the top. As the lye
flows down the column through the centre, a series of
rotating disks keeps the soap / lye mixture agitated
between the rings. This creates enough turbulence to
ensure good mixing between the two solutions. The rate
of glycerin production is calculated and the rate at which
fresh lye is added to the washing column then set such
that the spent lye is 25 - 35 % glycerin. Glycerin is almost
infinitely soluble in brine, but at greater than 35%
glycerin the lye no longer efficiently removes glycerin from the soap. The soap is allowed to overflow
from the top of the column and the lye ("half spent lye") is pumped away from the bottom at a
controlled rate and added to the reactor.

Duty: To remove glycerin from the soap by introducing fresh lye.

Type: column with rings fixed on its inside surface.

Description: Cylindrical and slightly inclined to the horizontal

Material of construction: Mild Steel

Number required: 1

Number required: 1

Material of construction: Carbon Steel

C.S + F.L = B + 3360.163

Where,
C.S = Crude soap; F.L = Fresh lye
B = Washed soap

11 | P a g e
 F.L = 2500kg/hr
C.S + 2500 = B + 3360.163

Fresh Lye Component Balance

F.L = 0.65B + 0.2 (3360.163)
2500 = 0.65B + 672.033
0.65B = 1827.967
B = 2812.257
From T.M.B,
C.S + 2500 = 2812.257 + 3360.163
C.S = 2812.257 + 3360.163 – 2500
C.S = 3672.4kg/hr
INPUT OUTPUT

Component Amount Component Amount

(kg/hr) (kg/hr)

Crude soap 3672.4 Washed soap 3360.16

Fresh lye 2500 Glycerine 2812.26

Total 6172.4 Total 6172.4

4.4 < Centrifuge >

The lye is added at the top of the washing
column, and the soap removed from the
column as overflow. As the lye is added near
the overflow pipe the washed soap is about
20% fresh lye, giving the soap unacceptably
high water and caustic levels. Separating off
the lye lowers the electrolyte levels to
acceptable limits. The soap and lye are

12 | P a g e
separated in a centrifuge, leaving a soap
which is 0.5% NaCl and 0.3% NaOH, and about 31% water. The lye removed is used as fresh lye.

Duty: To separate soap and lye

Type: Tubular centrifuge
Number: 1
The energy consumption of a tubular bowl centrifuge handling dilute slurries is 1.49kw
Tubular centrifuge bowl Maximum centrifuge force × gravity =13200

B = L + W.S
Where, INPUT OUTPUT
B = Washed soap
Component Amount (kg/hr) Component Amount (kg/hr)
L = Lye
Washed 3360.16 Lye 672.03
W.S = Wet soap
WS = L + 2688.13------- soap
(1)
Wet soap 2688.13
Lye Component Balance
0.2 W. S = L--------- (2) Total 3360.16 Total 3360.16

Substituting (2) into (1)

W.S = 0.2W.S + 2688.13
0.85W.S = 2688.13
W.S = 3360.163kg/hr

13 | P a g e
4.5 < Neutralizing vessel >

Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are still
unacceptably high for toilet and laundry soap. The
NaOH is removed by reaction with a weak acid such
as coconut oil (which contains significant levels of
free fatty acids), coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid or
phosphoric acid, with the choice of acid being made
largely on economic grounds. Some preservative is also added at this stage.

Duty: to react weak acid with sodium hydroxide.

Type: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel

Storage Tank 3
Duty: To temporarily store lye solution before entering saponifier.
Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends.
Number required: 1
Material of construction: Carbon Steel

Neutralization reaction
NaOH + H3PO4 NaH2PO4 + H2O

Soap (Solid) Component Balance

W.S (0.682) = 2656.96 (0.69)
W.S (0.682) = 1833.302

14 | P a g e
W.S = 2688.126kg/hr

NaOH Balance
0.003 (2688.126) = 8.064kg/hr
Therefore,
1 mol NaOH
1 mol H3PO4

But n = m M (NaOH) = 40g/mol

M
n (NaOH) = 8.064 kg mol 1000g
Hr 40g 1kg
n = 201.6mol/hr
Therefore,
1 mol H3PO4 201.6 NaOH
1mol NaOH
n (H3PO4) = 201.6mol/hr
m (H3PO4) = n × M
= 201.6 mol 98g 1kg
hr mol 1000g
m (H3PO4) = 19.76kg/hr
From Stoichiometric Ratio
1mol NaH2PO4 201.6 NaOH
1 mol NaOH
= 201.6mol/hr
M (NaH2PO4) = 121g/mol
n=m/M

15 | P a g e
 m (NaH2PO4) = 121g 201.6mol 1kg
mol hr 1000kg
m (NaH2PO4) = 24.349kg/hr
Then,
Total Material Balance
W.S + H3PO4 + Additives = S + NaH2PO4
2688.13 + 19.76 + Additives = 2696.04 + 24.394
Additives = 12.54kg/hr

INPUT OUTPUT

Component Amount (kg/hr) Component Amount (kg/hr)

Wet soap 2688.13 Soap 2696.07

Additives 12.57 Salt 24.394

Weak acid 19.76

Total 2720.43 Total 2720.43

4.6 < Dryer >

Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 12%. This is done by heating the soap to
about 125oC under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the soap is still in the
pipes) and then spraying it into an evacuated chamber at 40 mm Hg (5.3 kPa). The latent heat of
evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the soap temperature down to 45oC, at which
temperature it solidifies onto the chamber walls. The soap chips are scraped off the walls and
"plodded" (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as "plodder worms" to form soap noodles. The
soap is now known as base or neat soap chip, and can be converted into a variety of different soaps
in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated off the wet soap is transported to a barometric
condenser, which decondenses the vapor without the system losing vacuum. The moisture can
contain soap dust (. Fines.) which is removed by cyclones and returned by augers to the spray

16 | P a g e
chamber, while the water is recycled.

Duty: to reduce water levels to about 12%

in the toilet soap
Type: vacuum shelf dryer
Number: 1
Capacity: 2083.33kg/hr
Moisture content: 3%
Column diameter: 0.9m
Hole diameter: 20mm

S = W + 2083.3kg/hr

Where,
INPUT OUTPUT
S = Soap
Componen Amount Component Amount
W = Water
t (kg/hr) (kg/hr)

Soap 2696.07 Toilet Soap 2083.33

Solid Component Balance
Water 585.79
S (0.68) = 2083.33 (0.88)
Impurities 26.96
0.68S = 1833.33
Total 2696.07 Total 2696.07
S = 2696.07kg/hr

Water Component Balance

2696.07 (0.31) = 2083.3 (0.12) + W

835.782 = 249.996 + W

W = 835.782-249.996
17 | P a g e
W = 585.79kg/hr

For Impurities

0.01 (2696.07) = 26.96kg/hr

Section 5: Energy Balance

The conservation of energy however differs from that of mass in that energy can be generated
(consumed) in a chemical process. Material can change form and new molecular species can be
formed by the chemical reaction, but the total mass flow into a process unit must be equal to the
flow out at steady state. This is not true for energy. The total enthalpy of the outlet streams will not
equal that of the inlet streams if energy is generated or consumed in the process due to heat of
reaction.

In process design, energy balances are made to determine the energy requirements of the process:
the heating, cooling and power required. It shows the pattern of energy usage and suggests areas
for conservation and savings.

Assumptions

1. No accumulation of material and energy;

2. Open systems only;

3. The type of process taking place is continuous; and

4. No change in density of material along the process line.

5.1 < Saponification Vessel >

∆ H =Q−W S Q=∆ H +W S

Where

w s=0.05 kw for a turbine agitator

18 | P a g e
But for,

∆ H =H 2−H 1

∆ H =m [∫ cpdt −∫ cpdt ]

At reference state of 250c

[∫ ]
70 ' c 25 ' c
∆ H =m cpdt− ∫ cpdt
25' c 25 ' c

Hence

[∫ ]
70 ' c
∆ H =m cpdt
25' c

Where

Cp (wet soap) =1. 22kj∕kg.k

M (mass flow rate) =3707.48kg∕hr

T at 250c=298.15 k

T at 700 c=343.15k

Then, ∆ H =3707.48
kg
h (
1.22
kj
|
kg . k |
( 343.15−298.15 ) k
h
3600 s |)
∆ H =56.5 kw

Where Q=∆ H +W S

¿ ( 56.5+0.05 ) kw

Q=¿56.55 kw is the amount of heat energy required by the saponification vessel.

5.2 < washing column >

19 | P a g e
 ∆ H =Q−W S Q=∆ H +W S
Where
w s=0.05 kw for a turbine agitator
But for,
∆ H =H out −H ¿
Where
Hout ¿ H glycrinee +H wet soap : T at 80
0
c=353.15k
H ¿=H wet soap
+ H lye : T at 70
0
c=343.15k
For

H 80 c
glycerine=m ∫ cpdt
70 c

⟨
¿ 2812.26
kg
h |
2.43
kj
kg . k |
( 353.15−343.15 ) k
1h
3600 s | |⟩
H glycerine=18.98 kw
H 80 c
washed soap=m ∫ cpdt
70 c

⟨
¿ 3360.16
kg
h |
1.22
kj
kg . k |
( 353.15−343.15 ) k
1h
3600 s | |⟩
H washed soap=11.39 kw
H 80c
lye=m ∫ cpdt
70c

⟨
¿ 2500
kg
h |
3.1
kj
kg . k |
( 353.15−343.15 ) k
1h
3600 s | |⟩
H lye=21.53kw
H 80c
crude soap=m ∫ cpdt
70c

⟨
¿ 3672.4
kg
h |
1.22
kj
kg . k |
( 353.15−343.15 ) k
1h
3600 s | |⟩
H crude soap=12.45 kw

Hence
∆ H =H out −H ¿

20 | P a g e
 ¿ ( 18.98+11.39 )− (21.53+ 12.45 )
¿ 30.37−33.98
∆ H =−3.61 kw
Then
Q=∆ H +W S
¿−3.61+ 0.05
Q=3.56 kw

5.3 < centrifuge >

The energy consumption of a tubular bowl centrifuge handling dilute slurries is 1.49kw

Tubular centrifuge bowl diameter =4.25in

Maximum centrifuge force × gravity =13200

Where Q=WS

Q=1.49kw

Separation factor (ks)

k 39.48 n2 r
s=¿ ¿
g

k 39.48 (250 ) 4.125

2
k s=¿1037557.3 ¿
s=¿ ¿
9..81

5.4 < Neutralizer >

NaOH + H 3 P O4 → NaHP O4 + H 2 O
Q=∆ H
Where ∆ H is by definition ∆ Ĥ rxn for thechemical reaction equqtion

21 | P a g e
 Compound ∆ Ĥ f (kj ∕ mol)

NaOH - 469.43
H3PO4 - 1294.23

H2O - 1748.1

NaHPO4 - 285. 85

Hence
∆ Ĥ rxn =¿

∆ Ĥ rxn =[ ( V NaHPO 4 ∆ Ĥ f NaHPO 4 +V H O ∆ Ĥ f H

2 2
O ) −( V NaOH ∆ Ĥ f NaOH +V H 3 PO 4 ∆ Ĥ f H 3 PO 4 ) ]
∆ Ĥ rxn =[ ( 1× (−1748.1 ) ) + ( 1 × (−285.85 ) ) ]−[ ( 1 × (−469.43 ) ) + ( 1× (−1294.23 ) ) ]
∆ Ĥ rxn =(−2033.95 ) — (−1763.66 )
∆ Ĥ rxn =−270.29 kj/mol
Hence Q= -270.29kj/mol
The negative value of Q means heat is removed from the reaction.

5.5 < Dryer >

Qs
=C PS ( T sb −T sa )+ X a C pl ( T v −T sa ) + ( X a−X b ) ⋋+ X b C pl ( T va −T v ) + ( X a −X b ) C pv ( T va−T v )
ms
WhereT sa=feed temperature
T v =vapourizationtemperature
T sb =final solidstemperature
T va =final vapour temperature
C PS , C pl ,C pv =heat capcities of solids , liquid∧vapour
Then

22 | P a g e
 4.187 kj
C pl = .k
kg
4.285 kj
C pv= .k
kg
1.22 kj
C PS= .k
kg
T sa=700 c +273.15 k =343.15 k
oc
T v =100 +273.15 k=373.15 k
oc
T sb=45 +273.15 k =318.15 k
⋋=225 kj/kg
X a=0.31 X b=0.12 ms =2083.33 kg/h
Then total rate of heat transfer (Q s ¿
Qs
=1.22 (318.15−343.15 ) + ( 0.3 ) ( 4.1897 )( 373.15−343.15 )+ ( 0.31−0.12 ) 225+ ( 0.12 ) ( 4.1897 ) (318.15−373.15)+ ( 0
ms
Qs
=(−30.5 ) + ( 38.964 )+ ( 42.75 )−27.652+3.986
ms
Qs
=−58.152+85.7
ms
Qs
=27.548
ms
Qs =ms (27.548)
Qs =2083.33(27.548)

Qs =57391.6 |kjh| 3600

1h
s
Qs =15.94 kw
Hence the energy needed by the dryer is 15.94kw

23 | P a g e
 Table 1: Specifications of pipelines

The Piping Specification provides the appropriate selection, specification and material grade of
pipe and piping components for a given service [11-12].

Pipeline Fluid Mass Fluid Diameter Schedul Material Of

Location Transporte Flow Velocity , In. e Constructio

d Rate, , m/s Number n

(kg/hr)

Between the Wet soap 3707.62 9.67 8 40-S 304 Stainless

saponification Steel
vessel and the

static separator

Between the static Crude soap 3672.4 9.67 8 40-S 304 stainless

separator and the steel

washing column

24 | P a g e
Between the Washed 2812.26 2.73 6 40-S 304 stainless

washing colunm soap steel

and the centrifuge

Between Wet soap 2688.13 2.23 6 40-S 304 stainless

centrifuge and steel

neutralizer

Between Soap 2696.07 2.22 6 40-S 304 stainless

neutralizer and steel

the vacuum shelf

dryer

From vacuum Toilet soap 2083.33 2.34 1.5 40-S 304 stainless

shelf dryer steel

25 | P a g e
 Section 6: Equipment design
6.1 <Saponification vessel>

The saponification reactor is a dual-purpose unit operational vessel that serves for reactor and
mixer in the production of soap. Efforts have been made by available literatures to work on the
agitation concepts and geometry which determines the rate of reaction and degree of homogeneity
of reactor mixture.

Duty: To react sodium hydroxide, tallow and lye.

Type: Non reversible

C17H35CO0 + 3NaOH = 3 [C17H35COONa] + C3H5(OH)3 ……………………………. (1)

The irreversible reaction that takes place between A (triglycerides) and sodium hydroxide
(B) to give soap (c) and glycerin (D) with stoichiometric coefficients
a, b, c, d is shown in equation 1

we set a=l, b=3 which is expected to produce c=3, d=1

aA + bB → cC + dD

26 | P a g e
 Assuming 2nd order reaction,

reaction rate(rr) = -dCA/dt =KCACB

where, K= rate constant

X= conversion

rr= - dCA/dT=K*CAO (1- a*XA) *CBO (1-b*XA)

Solving differential equation and writing M=CBO/CAO gives,

ln((M-b*XA)/(M(1-a*XA))) =K(a*M-b) *CAO*t.

A. Calculations for the dimensions of the vessel

The reactor vessel is a concentric cylindrical vessel containing an inner and an outer vessel, made
of stainless and galvanized steels, respectively.
Here, the geometry of the vessel was determined. Standard paddle using Z- blades is chosen.
Axially-mounted-driven by motor is selected (Treybal 1981). Agitator diameter, height, baffle
clearance, baffle width and impeller width were determined. The effective length or unsupported
length (L) was calculated based on the correlations. The wall thickness and vessel material were
selected based on recommendations. The heat addition route was selected as the jacket.

Plot ln((M-b*XA)/(M(1-a*XA))) on y axis and t on x axis gives a straight line with slope
determining rate constant K.

t ln((M-b*XA)/(M(1-a*XA)))
0 0
2 0.211561
4 0.487525
6 0.881134
8 1.562282

27 | P a g e
 1.8
1.6
1.4
f(x) = 0.189706775535651 x − 0.130326717249177
1.2
1
0.8
Y

Y
0.6 Linear (Y)

0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t

Fig 1: Graph for determining rate constant

1. From the graph K= 3.77*10^-6

2. Total time taken

ln (M-b*XA)/(M(1-a*XA)) =k*(a*M-b) *CAO*t

Solving this equation, time can be determined: t=8.25 hr

td=down time for batch (assuming 1.75 hr)

total time =8.25 +1.75=10 hr

3. Volume of vessel
Tallow: 735.29 kg/hr density= 870 kg/m3 mol. wt. =850.82g/mole
lye: 2700 kg/her density = 2130 kg/m3 mol wt. =40g/mole
NaOH: 272.33kg/hr density= 2130 kg/m3 mol wt. = 40g/mole.

CAO=870/0.85092 *1000=1022.422 mol/m3

Similarly, CBO = 2130/40 *1000 = 53272.69 mol/m3

28 | P a g e
 say, XA = 0.8
CA=CAO*(1-XA) (CAO*XA)/a = (CBO * XA)/b
=1022.422 * (1-0.8) XB=0.0460
=204.48 mol/m3

CB = 53272.69 *(1-0.0460)
= 50818.87264 mol/m3

Using Performance equation, V/FAO=XA/(-rA) and putting all the values we get,
V=17.506 m3 (assuming 14% over designed V= 20 m3)
V=π*Dt*Dt*Dt (H=4D)
D=1.85 m
H=7.41 m

4. Thickness of main vessel

The thickness of the wall of the main vessel plus the corrosion allowance were calculated
using

𝑃𝐷𝑜
𝑡= +𝐶 (𝑚𝑚)

2𝐹𝐽+𝑃

where: t = minimum thickness required; P = probable pressure build up;

𝐷𝑜= outer diameter of the inner vessel, C = corrosion allowance thickness,
F = the allowable design stress for material specified J = the welded joint efficiency
factor

30*2.94___________
𝑡= +4 (𝑚𝑚)
2*129.2764*1+30

29 | P a g e
 = 3.08+4
= 7.08 mm

5. Jacketed vessel
The heating route is the jacket and as a pool or nucleated boiling which is ideal for saponification
reactor. The jacket has no baffle for cost saving as it is not necessary for pool boiling.
The jacket is single external type which is chosen for uniformity and stability of jacket
temperature, and effective heat transfer coefficient. The spacing between the jacket and vessel wall
typically depend on the size of the wall i.e., about 50 mm for small vessels while 20 mm is chosen
here owing to the size of the vessel.
For NRE < 4000 : Nu= 0.74*Re0.67*Pr0.33 Kf =0.4 W/m-oC
Cp = 2.65 KJ /kg-oC
NRe = 3536
Pr = μ*Cp/Kf = 0.082*2650/0.4
= 543.25
hv *0.0882/0.4 = 0.74 * 35360.67 * 543.25 0.33
hv = 635.55 W/m2-oC Steam
Now K= 16 W/m-oC (stainless steel) 120.41 0C ?
1/U = 0.007/16 + 1/639.55
U = 499.725 W / m2-OC 70 OC 25 OC

For steam, Soap

56.55 = m * Cp * (Ti-To) [Assuming , steam flow rate (m) = 1 kg/sec
Cp of steam = 1.996 KJ/ Kg-K]
56.55 = 1* 1.996 * (120.41 - To)
To = 91.66 K
For Jackted agitator vessel, TLMTD = (Tho -Tco )
Q = U * A *TLMTD
56.55 = 499.725 * Pi/4 * d * d * L (91.66-25)

30 | P a g e
LB= 1.942 m ~ 1942 mm

B. Calculations for the Agitator

A mechanical agitator is an indispensable unit in a batch mixing and reactor processes. The
optimum agitation conditions are necessary for effective results in the reactor performance. The
nature of operation, degree of mixing, physical properties of liquids, associated operations are
factors to be considered while the liquid level, dimensions and arrangement of impellers, baffles
and other internal components influence the amount of energy required to achieve the needed
degree of mixing.

Da 1 J 1 E 1 L 1
= = = = ……………………… (2)
Dt 3 D t 12 Dt 3 Da 4
where: 𝐻 = Liquid Height 𝐷a = Agitator Diameter Dt = Tank Diameter
J = Baffle Width 𝐿 = Blade Length
𝐸 = Distance between the midpoints of the impeller

E 1
= ……………………………………………….. (3)
Dt 3
Equation 3 was used to determine the side view proportions of the vessel with a stirrer. The flat
blade disk turbine was chosen as the stirrer blade to attain effective mixing of the reactants.
Calculations:
An agitator, very often some form of a propeller or paddle, is placed within the vessel to stir the
material and promote dispersion. Finally, a motor or some source of rotational energy is affixed to
the agitator, often by a shaft.
J=0.0833*1.85 m = 0.154 m
E=0.3*1.85 m = 0.555

Batch Volume to the basic equation pi/4 x Da x Da x Da., by replacing the

Vessel Día with Equivalent Día, i.e., V = (π/4) x Teq x Teq x Teq

Then, Teq = √3 4∗V /π

= (4*(20/3.14)) ^1/3

31 | P a g e
 =2.94 m

1.Agitator Día (Da) = Da/T x Teq

=0.3*2.94
=0.882 m

2.Bulk Velocity (Vc) = 6 x Scale of Agitation ft/min.

= 0.03048 x 1 m/sec.

3.Pumping Rate (Q) = Vc. (π x Teq x Teq)/4 m/sec

=20*3.14*2.94*2.94/4

Based on the Agitator, we need to consider the Flow number, find from below table.

Table 2: Determining flow number

4.Flow number =0.79

5. Agitator Speed, N = Q / ( NQ x Da x Da x Da ),
=0.21/ (0.79*0.8823)
=24.35 rpm
From this Agitator Speed, calculate the Reynold's Number (NRE),
where Density (Ρ =932kg/m3,  
Viscosity(μ)=82cP
6.NRE = D x D x N x Ρ / μ
= (0.882*0.882*24.35*932)/82*10-3
=3536

32 | P a g e
Now after Calculating the Reynolds number, we can get the Power Number from the Agitator
Curves, as follows,

Fig 2: Agitator curves

From the estimated Power number ( NP ), We can Calculate the Power required.

7.Power required (P) = NP x Ρ x N3x D5.

=1.370*932*0.403*08825
=0.04 KW

Assuming loading of 80%, motor power required

8.Motor Power= 0.05 kW

33 | P a g e
Fig 3: Schematic diagram of saponification reactor

34 | P a g e
6.2 <Washing column>
Duty: To remove glycerin from the soap by introducing fresh lye.

Type: column with rings fixed on its inside surface.

Description: Cylindrical and slightly inclined to the horizontal

Calculations for the dimensions of the column:

The column is sized on the basis that the velocity of the continuous phase must be less than settling
velocity of the droplets of the dispersed phase. The velocity of the continuous phase calculated
using the area of the interface:

lc
uc =
Ai
< ud

where ud =settling velocity of the dispersed phase droplets, m/s;

uc =velocity of the continuous phase, m/s;

lc =continuous phase volumetric flow rate, m3 /s; Ai = area of the interface, m2.

Stokes’ law is used to determine the settling velocity of the droplets:

2
d d ∗g∗( Ρ d−Ρ c )
uc =
18∗μ c

where dd = droplet diameter, m;

uc = settling (terminal) velocity of the dispersed phase droplets with diameter d, m/s;

Ρc = density of the continuous phase, kg/m3;

Ρd = density of the dispersed phase, kg/m3;

μc = viscosity of the continuous phase, N s/m2;

g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2.

Here assuming, soap is the dispersed phase ad lye is the continuous phase.

Soap: flow rate 3707.62 kg/h, density 932 kg/m3, viscosity 82 mN s/m2.
35 | P a g e
Lye: flow rate 2500 kg/h, density 2130 kg/m3, viscosity 87 mN s/m2.

Take dd = 300 μm
−6
300∗10 ∗9.81∗(932−2130)
uc =
18∗0.087
= -0.675 mm/s (rising)
As the flow rate is small, use a vertical, cylindrical vessel.

2500
∗1
c 1000 −4
3
/s
Lc = =6.94∗10 m
3600
lc
uc > ud, and uc = Ai

6.94∗10−4
Ai ¿ −4
6.75∗10
1.075 m2
r = √ Ai/ π
= 0.573 m
d = 1.143 m
assuming l/d = 5 we get, l= 5.7188 m ~5718 mm

3672.4
∗1
932
velocity of dispersed phase = ∗1
3600
1.0275
= 1.0625*10-3 ~ 1.06 mm/s

u d∗18∗μ c
Now dd =
g∗(Ρd −Ρ c )
= 2.91*10-4 m ~ 291 μm
This value is less than our assumed dd value (300 μm)
Thus satisfied.
36 | P a g e
Calculations for the dimensions of rings:

A. Diameter of rings = 1/4th of the diameter of column

= 1.143/4
= 0.286 m
Or, 286 mm

B. Assuming, pitch of the rings = 300 mm

C. No. of rings = length of column / pitch

= 5718 / 300

= 19.06 ~ 19

6.3 <Storage tanks>

Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed gases, operate under no (or very little)
pressure. Storage tanks are often cylindrical in shape, perpendicular to the ground with flat
bottoms, and a fixed frangible or floating roof. There are usually many environmental regulations
applied to the design and operation of storage tanks, often depending on the nature of the fluid
contained within.
Storage tanks are available in many shapes: vertical and horizontal cylindrical; open top and closed
top; flat bottom, cone bottom, slope bottom and dish bottom. Large tanks tend to be vertical
cylindrical, or to have rounded corners transition from vertical side wall to bottom profile, to easier
withstand hydraulic hydrostatically induced pressure of contained liquid. Most container tanks for
handling liquids during transportation are designed to handle varying degrees of pressure.
A large storage tank is sometimes mounted on a lorry (truck) or on an articulated lorry trailer,
which is then called a tanker.

Storage Tank 1

37 | P a g e
Duty: To serve as a stock pile for the tallow.
Material of construction: Carbon Steel.

Calculation for the geometry of the vessel:

Assuming, holding time for most storage vessel is 10 minutes.

vessel volume 50% full: V=Q/ (0.5 t) t = 10/60 = 0.1667 hr
735.29 kg/hr
= 0.845 / 0.5*0.167 Q= 3 = 0.845 m3/hr
870 kg /m
= 10.14 m3

Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends is selected

Optimum L/D ratio is 3, however a range of 2 to 5 is common

V=π*D2*L/4
10.14= π*D2*3*D / 4
D = 1.626 m
L = 4.879 m

Storage Tank 2
Duty: To temporarily store sodium hydroxide.
Material of construction: Carbon Steel

Calculation for the geometry of the vessel:

Assuming, holding time for most storage vessel is 10 minutes.

vessel volume 50% full: V=Q/ (0.5 t) t = 10/60 = 0.1667 hr
272.33 kg/hr
= 0.127 / 0.5*0.167 Q= 3 = 0.127 m3/hr
2130 kg /m
= 1.524 m3

Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends is selected

38 | P a g e
Optimum L/D ratio is 3, however a range of 2 to 5 is common

V=π*D2*L/4
1.524= π*D2*3*D / 4
D = 0.865 m
L = 2.59 m

Storage Tank 3
Duty: To temporarily store lye solution before entering saponify.
Material of construction: Carbon Steel

Calculation for the geometry of the vessel:

Assuming, holding time for most storage vessels is 10 minutes.

vessel volume 50% full: V=Q/ (0.5 t) t = 10/60 = 0.1667 hr
2700 kg /hr
= 1.267 / 0.5*0.167 Q= 3 = 1.267 m /hr
3
2130 kg/m
= 15.21 m3

Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends is selected

Optimum L/D ratio is 3, however a range of 2 to 5 is common

V=π*D2*L/4
15.21 = π*D2*3*D / 4
D = 1.862 m
L = 5.586 m

Section 7: Layout of the plant

7.1 <Plant location> The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on
the success of an industrial venture [12]. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant
site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily, the plant should be located where
the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained, but other factors, such as room

39 | P a g e
for expansion and safe
living conditions for plant operation as well as the surrounding community, are also important. A
general consensus as to the plant location should be obtained before a design project reaches the
detailed estimate stage, and a firm location should be established upon completion of the detailed-
estimate design. The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the
advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and, ultimately, on the advantages and
disadvantages of available real estate. The following factors should be considered in selecting a
plant site:

1. Raw materials availability

2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection.
12. Community factors

7.2 <Plant siting and layout> The efficiency of production depends on how well the various
machines; production facilities and employee’s amenities are located in a plant. Only the properly
laid out plant can ensure the smooth and rapid movement of material, from the raw material stage
to the end product stage. Plant layout encompasses new layout as well as improvement in the
existing layout. It may be defined as a technique of locating machines, processes and plant services
within the factory so as to achieve the right quantity and quality of output at the lowest possible
cost of manufacturing. It involves a judicious arrangement of production facilities so that workflow
is direct.

40 | P a g e
7.2.1 <Importance>
Plant layout is an important decision as it represents long-term commitment. An ideal plant
layout should provide the optimum relationship among output, floor area and manufacturing
process. It facilitates the production process, minimizes material handling, time and cost, and
allows flexibility of operations, easy production flow, makes economic use of the building,
promotes effective utilization of manpower, and provides for employee’s convenience, safety,
comfort at work, maximum exposure to natural light and ventilation. It is also important because it
affects the flow of material and processes, labour efficiency, supervision and control, use of space
and expansion possibilities etc

7.2.2 <Essentials>
An efficient plant layout is one that can be instrumental in achieving the
Following objectives:
a) Proper and efficient utilization of available floor space
b) To ensure that work proceeds from one point to another point without any delay
c) Provide enough production capacity.
d) Reduce material handling costs
e) Reduce hazards to personnel
f) Utilize labor efficiently
g) Increase employee morale
h) Reduce accidents
i) Provide for volume and product flexibility
j) Provide ease of supervision and control
k) Provide for employee safety and health
l) Allow ease of maintenance
m) Allow high machine or equipment utilization
n) Improve productivity

7.2.3 <Types of layout>

Plant layout for Small Scale business is closely linked with the factory building and built up area.
From the point of view of plant layout, we can classify small business or unit into

41 | P a g e
Three categories:
1. Manufacturing units
2. Traders
3. Service Establishments

1. Manufacturing units
In case of manufacturing unit, plant layout may be of four types:

(a) Product or line layout

(b) Process or functional layout
(c) Fixed position or location layout
(d) Combined or group layout

2. Traders
There are three kinds of layouts in retail operations today.

1. Self-service or modified self-service layout

2. Full-service layout
3. Special layouts

3. Services centers and establishment

Services establishments such as motels, hotels, restaurants, must give due attention to client
convenience, quality of service, efficiency in delivering services and pleasing office ambience. In
today’s environment, the clients look for ease in approaching different departments of a service
organization and hence the layout should be designed in a fashion, which allows clients quick and
convenient access to the facilities offered by a service establishment.

6.2.4 <Factors influencing layout>

While deciding his factory or unit or establishment or store, a small-scale businessman should keep
the following factors in mind:

42 | P a g e
a) Factory building: The nature and size of the building determines the floor space available for
layout. While designing the special requirements, e.g. air conditioning, dust control, humidity
control etc. must be kept in mind.
b) Nature of product: product layout is suitable for uniform products whereas process layout is
more appropriate for custom-made products.
c) Production process: In assembly line industries, product layout is better. In job order or
intermittent manufacturing on the other hand, process layout is desirable.
d) Type of machinery: General purpose machines are often arranged as per process layout while
special purpose machines are arranged according to product layout
e) Repairs and maintenance: machines should be so arranged that adequate space is available
between them for movement of equipment and people required for repairing the machines.
f) Human needs: Adequate arrangement should be made for cloakroom, washroom, lockers,
drinking water, toilets and other employee facilities, proper provision should be made for disposal
of effluents, if any.
g) Plant environment: Heat, light, noise, ventilation and other aspects should be duly considered,
e.g. paint shops and plating section should be located in another hall so that dangerous fumes can
be removed through proper ventilation etc. Adequate safety arrangement should also be made.

43 | P a g e
Fig 4: Schematic layout of the plant

44 | P a g e
 Section 8: Cost Estimation

8.1 < Economic analysis>

This plant design project aims to present a process that is capable of operating under conditions
which will yield profit. As a necessity the economic viability of this manufacturing business must
be addressed considering the society and government with which it will operate. The primary
concern of an investor lies in the rate of return (ROR) based on accurate cost estimates and sound
data [13].

Since net profit equals total income minus all expenses, it is essential that all the costs involved in
manufacturing processes are considered. A capital investment is required for any industrial process
and the determination of the process consists of fixed capital Investment of physical equipment and
facilities in the plant plus necessary investment is an important part design project. The total
investment for any working capital which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw materials and
products on hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cash outlay.

Using the payback period, rate of return and unit product cost a profitability analysis will be
conducted to see the viability of this plant design.

Basis of economic analysis:

 Plant operation: 3 shifts per day
 Process: Continuous
 Plant life: 15years (Peters et al,1986)
 Plant production rate: 16,500 tons per annum
 Working period: 330 days
 Production capacity: varied over the years

45 | P a g e
 8.2 <Total capital investment>

Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money is needed to purchase
and install the necessary machinery and equipment’s, obtain land and service facilities and also the
plant must be erected complete with all piping, controls and services. Many must also be available
for the payment of expense and involved in the plant operation (peter et al). The total capital
investment is the sum of the following:

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) is the capital needed to supply all manufacturing and plant
facilities. FCI can also be defined as the total cost of the plant ready for startup (Coulson and
Richardson, Volume 6). This includes:

8.2.1 <Direct (manufacturing) fixed capital investment>

The amount of money necessary for the installed process equipment with all
auxiliaries needed for a complete process operation (e.g. purchased equipment cost,
equipment installation cost, instrumentation and control cost, piping cost, electrical
equipment and material cost, building (including services) cost, yard improvement
cost, service facilities coat, land cost, etc)

8.2.2 Indirect (non-manufacturing) fixed capital investment

Construction overheads and all plant components which are directly related to the
process operation. (e.g. engineering and supervision cost, construction expenses,
contractors fee, contingency fees, warehouse, laboratories, transportation, utility etc)

Working Capital is the capital needed for the daily running of the plant. In other words, it is the
additional investment capital needed over and above the fixed capital investment to start the plant,
to operate it to the point when income is earned. This consists of the total amount of money
invested in

46 | P a g e
Start up, Raw material and supplies carried in stock, Finished and semi-finished products in stock,
accounts receivable and payable, Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses,
Taxes payable

It is estimated that working capital is approximately 15% of total capital investment.

8.3 <Estimation of direct fixed capital investment>

Service Cost $
NaOH Storage tank 14904
Water Storage tank 6505
Saponifier vessel 146302
Lye Preparation tank 8280
Soap dryer 7300
1st Soap Heater 2505.3
Static Separator 649,600
Washing Column 21,900
Centrifuge 6900
Neutralizer Vessel 265,700

Table 3: Cost of Equipment in 2009

47 | P a g e
Source: Perry’s Total Equipment Cost = $1,129,896.3

Table 4: Determining other cost

Estimated Cost,

Item $

1129896.3
Purchased equipment cost (PC)

Purchased equipment installation (25% of PC) 1955890.93

Instrumentation and controls (8% of PC) 625885.1

Piping (installed) (30% of PC) 2347069.116

Electrical (installed) (12% of PC) 938827.65

48 | P a g e
Building (Including services) (47% of PC) 3677075

Yard improvements (2% of PC) 782356.37

Service facilities (25% of PC) 2347069.116

Land 5357.14

Total Direct Cost (TDC) 13,809,426.72

TOTAL INDIRECT COST (TIC)

Item Estimated cost

Engineering and Supervision (8% of TDC) 1640247-531

Construction expense (10% of TDC) 2050309.414

Contractors Fee (5% of TDC) 1025154.707

Contingencies (8% of TDC) 1640247.531

TOTAL TIC 6355959.183

TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

(TFCI) = (TDC) + (TIC) 20165385.90

WORKING CAPITAL (WC)= 15%(TFCI) 3024807.885

49 | P a g e
TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT(TCP)$ =
23,190,193.79
(TFCI + WC)
Table 5: Total indirect cost

50 | P a g e
 8.4 < Estimation of Total Product Cost>

Total Product Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses

The manufacturing cost (direct product cost) is also subdivided into the fixed charges, plant
overheads and variable production cost. The fixed charges are costs that do not vary with
production rate, whereas the variable production cost is the cost dependent on the amount of
product produced. Plant overheads comprise hospital and medical bills, general plant maintenance
cost safety services among others (Peter et al, 1990).

The general expenses comprise administrative expenses, distribution and marketing expenses and
research and development expenses.

An additional 12.5% of the total cost for direct and indirect labor is included to account for the
social security contributions for each employee.

8.4.1 < Manufacturing cost>

Table 6: Determining manufacturing cost

Raw Material Annual Quantity Unit Cost/kg, $ Annual Cost ($)

Tallow 5823496.80 kg 0.714/20kg 207,898.84

Sodium hydroxide 2156853.60 kg 0.178 383,919.94

Total 591,818.78

51 | P a g e
 Table 7: Annual direct product cost

Description Total Annual Cost, ($)

Raw Materials 591,818.78

Operating Labour 1,492,425

Operating Supplies (15% of maintenance) 181,488.47

Power and Utilities (10% of PC) 112,989.63

Maintenance and Repairs (6% of FC) 1,209,923.15

Laboratory Charges (20% of operating labor) 298,485

Total Annual Direct Product Cost 3,887,130.03

Qty (Kg) Value (Rs.)

Total capacity of project 49999.792K
g
Wastage (@ 2%) 999.99Kg
Net production (49999.792- 999.99)
=48999.79616Kg
No. of soap cake 48999.7961/0.100=489997.96
bearing 100 gram of weight each Nos

Cost of each cake [ 100gm pack] Rs: 13/-

Total sale Rs 13.00 * 489997.96Nos =

6369973.48/-

52 | P a g e
8.4.2 < profitability analysis>

Profit Analysis (P.A.)

Net Profit = [ Sales- Cost of Production]

= 6369973.48 - 3,887,130.03 = 2482843.48.
Income Tax at 30%=744853.044.
Profit after tax = [2482843.48-744853.044]
=1737990.355/-

Rate of Return
On total sale = [ Profit * 100/Cost of Production]
=1737990.355x100/3,887,130.03 = 44.711%.
On total capital investment: = [ Profit * 100/Total Capital Investment]
=1737990.355x100/ 23,190,193.79= 7.49%

Break- Even Analysis

B.E.P =Fixed cost + Net Profit

= 20165385.90+2482843.48
= Rs 22648229.38

53 | P a g e
 Section 9: Hazard Identifications

A hazard is a property which in particular circumstances could lead to harm. Common safety
hazards in the manufacturing industry include; dangerous machinery, explosion to fires, faulty
electrical connections and falling materials due to poor housekeeping among others.
The potential hazards that could be present in the toilet soap plant include hazards due to materials
handling and hazards due to the various processes.

9.1 <Hazards due to materials handling>

Potentially hazardous situations include handling and packaging operations, equipment cleaning
and repair, decontamination following spills and equipment failure. Hazards that workers are likely
to be exposed to can be prevented by a number of ways, example of which is the provision of PPEs
(Personal Protective Equipment). These equipment’s include chemical splash goggles,
overcoat/chemical suit, rubber boots, ear plugs, face shield, etc. This equipment is worn to protect
the worker from the dangers of handling some of the chemicals especially sodium hydroxide.

9.2 <Hazards due to various processes>

Hazards that might be caused during processes in this plant include fire hazards, electrical and
mechanical hazards.
9.2.1 <Fire Hazards> During the process of heating the raw materials, for example, heating
takes place at high temperatures of about 600-650⁰C with the production of hot flue gases
through a chimney. Care must be taken near or during operation of the saponification vessel
for example the control of temperature. Laboure’s are so careless and tend to attempt
checking temperature manually. This and many other careless practices may lead to a fire
hazard. Overheating of vessel should also be avoided to prevent explosions or fire outbreak.

9.2.2 <Electrical Hazards> The main source of energy for this plant is electricity since
most of the process units would be powered by it .Care must be taken in dealing with
electric powered units, power should be shut down immediately when faulty electrical
connections are detected and alternative power source be sought for use. Workers must also

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 be careful especially during power fluctuations as this might cause electrocution or
explosions that might lead to fires.

9.2.3<Mechanical Hazards> These hazards may be due to improperly fixed or dangerous

machinery. Some machines are designed in such a way that it picks everything in its path.
For example, packaging. Such equipment is likely to cause a mechanical hazard. Parts of
machinery should not be left just anywhere on the plant site. Rather, good housekeeping of
machine parts should be employed.

With the above-mentioned safety measures, the plant can be safe to work on.

Section 10: Safety Measures

Every organization (company or industry) has the moral and legal obligation to protect the health
and welfare of its employees as well as that of the general public. Therefore, good safety measures
have to be put in place to ensure the safety of lives and prevent damage to equipment. The primary
aim of these safety measures therefore is to prevent or minimize workers exposure to the potential
hazard, injury to workers, loss of lives, and destruction of properties. They are also needed to
ensure safe as well as efficient operation.
These safety measures (mentioned in section 8) are employed in industry mainly to prevent or
control hazards.

10.1 <Basic Safety Rules>

There are few basic safety rules which must be observed when working in manufacturing area:
■ No smoking
■ No consumption of alcoholic liquor
■ No drinking except water foundations
■ Do not tamper with faulty equipment or electrical fittings
■ Wear all personal protective equipment provided

10.2 <Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment>

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A wide range of clothing and equipment for personal protective in a variety of materials are
available, among of which are found suitable to task should be used:

Table 8: Safety equipment

Sr. No. Personal Protective Device For Protection against

1. Safety hats Chemical splashes working with overhead pipes, tanks,

heat exchangers, etc.

2. Dust masks Inhalation of harmful dusts

3. Air masks Inhalation of smoke, harmful gases

4. Safety footwear Corrosive chemicals, falling objects

5. Eye protector Chemical splashes or sparks

6. Gloves Abrasion, corrosive & poisonous chemicals

7. Safety units Any kind of accidents

8. Barrier creams Dermatitis or skin infection

10.3 <Storage and handling>

a. Store and use with adequate ventilation.

b. Do not store in confined space.

c. Cryogenic containers should equip with a pressure relief device and a pressure controlling
valve. Under normal conditions, these containers will periodically vent the product.

d. Use adequate pressure relief devices in system and piping to prevent pressure buildup;
entrapped liquid can generate extremely high pressures when vaporized by warming.

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 e. Never allow any unprotected part of your body to touch un-insulated pipes or vessels
containing cryogenic fluids. Flesh will stick to the extremely cold metal and will tear when
you try to pull free.

f. Do not get liquid in eyes, on skin or on clothing. For liquid withdrawal, wear face shield
and gloves.

g. Use a suitable hand truck to move containers. Cryogenic containers must be handled and
stored in upright position.

h. Close container valve after each use; keep closed even when empty.

i. Do not drop or tip containers, or roll them on their sides.

j. If valve is hard to open, discontinue use and contact your supplier.

10.4 <Pollution control>

Pollution according to the Dangerous Substances Directive 76/464/EEC of the European Union is
the discharge by man directly or indirectly of substances or energy into the environment, the result
of which causes hazards to human health, harm to living resources and to ecosystems, damage to
amenities or interference with other legitimate uses of the environment.
Pollution in any industry is of major concern because the more or less it produces pollutants
indicates the level of control measures in place. Pollution can either be abated by preventing it at
the source or using the end-of-pipe technology. The concept of zero emissions and pollution
prevention at source is the best and less expensive option for any industry. This is where raw
materials are prepared and purified through initial cleaning processes before production.
However, most of the pollution control measures are end- of- pipe technology where waste at the
end of production is treated before released.

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 Section 11: Troubleshooting

 In the near future, the industry should partner with the abattoirs and oil companies to reduce
the purchase cost of raw materials.
 Due to the cost intensive nature of this project, a lower annual production rate should be
used.
 The issue of safety and control should be enforced at all levels and times to ensure the
smooth running of the plant, to protect lives and the environment as a whole.
 The marketing department should market the product to raise the profitability measure
higher than as shown during the plant life.
 The processes and product of the plant be subjected to ISO audit to give the company the
needed recognition on the world market.

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References
1. David A. Katz, “The Science of Soaps and Detergents” pp. 1-8.

2. Soap and Detergent Manufacturing: Point Source Category. Prepared for the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA-440/1-74-018-a. April
1974.

3. O’Brien, R, D. Fat and oils: formulating and processing for applications. 3rd. Edition. Taylor
& Francis Group, LLC. Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742. 2009; P 9, 20.

4. Gunstone, F.D.The Chemistry of Oils and Fats: Sources, Composition, Properties and Uses.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK. 2008; P5.

5. Gopal Rao M. & Sitting Marshall, (2012), “Dryden’s” , Outline Of Chemical Technology For
the 21st. Century, East-West Press, New Delhi, pp.296-298.
6. George T. Austin, (1975), “Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries, Fifth edition, McGraw Hill
International Editions, pp 511, 534-537, 540-549.

7. Sinnott, R.K. (1999). Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Design, Vol. 6, Third
Edition, pp. 407, 435

8. P. H. Groggin’s, (1995), “Unit Processes In Organic Synthesis, Fifth edition, TATA

McGRAW Hill, pp 772-775,896-901.
9. Perry Robert H., Green Don W., (1999), Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 7 th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., pp. section 18-2 to 18-12.
10. Liddell, Donald M. 1922. Handbook of Chemical Engineering, Volume 1,1st edition, McGraw
Hill.
11. Walas, Stanley M. (1990) Chemical Process Equipment (Selection and Design). In Mixing and
Agitation Chapter 10, pp. 287-296.

12. Abha Kumar, “Plant Location and Layout” chapter 7

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13. Max S. Peters “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineering”, fourth edition,
McGraw Hill International Editions, pp. 157-158, 176,197-198.

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