 Breaking the job down into  are the end result of time study or

Chapter 1 operations work measurement.

Methods, Standards, and Work  Analyzing each operation to  Time study analysts use
determine the most economical severaltechniques to establish a
Design manufacturing procedures for the standard:
quantity involved  Stopwatch time study
Productivity Importance  Applying proper time values  Computerized data
 Following through to ensure that collection
The only way a business or enterprise can the prescribed method is put into  Standard data
grow and increase its profitability is by operation  Predetermined time
increasing its productivity.  entails analyses at two different times systems
during the history of a product:  Work sampling
 Productivity improvement refers to the  responsible for designing and  Estimates based on
increase in output per work-hour or time developing the various work historical data
expanded. centers where the product will be  The resulting standards are used
 increasing the production per unit of produced to implement a wage payment
time or decreasing the cost per unit  must continually restudy the scheme.
output work centers to find a better way  Objectives of methods, standards,
 The fundamental tools that result in increased to produce the product and/or and work design
productivity include methods, time study improve its quality (called  Increase productivity and product
standards (frequently referred to as work corporate reengineering) reliability safely
measurement), and work design.  10 countries with highest Research and  Lower unit cost
 Traditional areas of opportunity for students Development (R&D) expenditures:  Corollaries to objectives:
enrolled in engineering, industrial 1. United states  Minimize the time required to
management, business administration, 2. Switzerland perform tasks
industrial psychology, and labor 3. Sweden  Continually improve the quality
management relations: 4. Netherlands and reliability of products and
 Work measurement 5. Germany services
 Work methods and design 6. Norway  Conserve resources and minimize
 Production engineering 7. France cost by specifying the most
 Manufacturinf analysis and control 8. Israel appropriate direct and indirect
 Facilities planning 9. Belgium materials for the production of
 Wage administration 10. Japan goods and services
 Ergonomics and safety  Systematic procedure:  Consider the cost and availability
 Production and inventory control 1. Select the project of power
 Quality control  the projects selected  Maximize the safety, health, and
represent either new well-being of all employees
Production area of an industry is key to products or existing  Produce with an increasing
success. products that have a high concern for protecting the
cost of manufacture and a environment
Methods, standards, and work design low profit  Follow a humane program of
activity is the key part of 2. Get and present the data management that results in job
the production group.  Assemble all the important interest and satisfaction for each
facts relating to the employee
product or service. Once all
 Manufacturing manager - produce a quality important information has Historical Developments
product, on schedule, at the lowest been acquired, record it in  Frederick W. Taylor
possible cost, with a minimum of capital an orderly form for study  Father of scientific management
investment and a maximum of employee and analysis. and industrial engineering
satisfaction 3. Analyze the data  After using stopwatch many yrs
 Reliability and quality control manager -  Utilize the primary later, established 4 principles of
maintain engineering specifications and approaches to operations scientific management:
satisfy customers with the product’s analysis to decide which Develop a science for each
quality level and reliability over its alternative will result in the element of a person;s work
expected life best product or service Select the best worker for each
 Production control manager - interested in 4. Develop the ideal method task and train that worker in the
establishing and maintaining production  Select the best procedure prescribed methods
schedules with due regard for both for each operation, Develop a spirit of cooperation
customer needs and the favorable inspection, and between management and labor
economics obtainable with careful transportation in carrying out the prescribed
scheduling 5. Present and install the method methods
 Maintenance manager - concerned with  Explain the proposed Divide the worki into almost equal
minimizing facility downtime due to method in detail to those share between management and
unscheduled breakdowns and repairs responsible for its labor each doing what they do
 Simplification - most time-consuming way of operation and maintenance best
reducing costs 6. Develop a job analysis  Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 Conduct a job analysis of to wealthy parents
Methods and Standards Scope the installed method to  founder of modern time study in
 Methods engineering ensure that the operators this country
 includes designing, creating, and are adequately selected,  Began time study work in 1881
selecting the best manufacturing trained, and rewarded  proposed that the work of each
methods, processes, tools, equipment, 7. Establish time standards employee be planned out by the
and skills to manufacture a product  Establish a fair and management at least one day in
based on the specifications that have equitable standard for the advance
been developed by the product installed method  advocated breaking up the work
engineering section 8. Follow up the method assignment into small divisions of effort
 Responsibilities:  At regular intervals, audit known as “elements.”
 Predetermined standards are met the installed method  [june 1903] Taylor presented his
 Workers are adequately  Work design famous paper “Shop Management,”
compensated for their output,  Principles of work design must be ( at Saratoga meeting of the American
skills, responsibilites, and used to fit the task and Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
experience workstation ergonomically to the Shop management included
 Workers have a feeling of human operator elements of scientific
satisfaction from work that they  Work design is typically forgotten management
do in the quest for increased  Time study
 Procedure: productivity  Standardization of all tools
 Defining the problem  Standards and tasks
 Use of a planning dept.
  Use of slide rules & similar descriptionof the Gilbreth’s  [1820] Charles W. Babbage makes
timesaving implements micromotion study, time study, and the time studies on No. 11 common pins
 Instruction cards for procedure for work sampling  [1832] Charles W. Babbage
workers  Professor Elton Mayo publishes On the Economy of Machinery
 Bonuses for successful  Known as father of Human and Manufactures.
performance Relations Movement  [1881] Frederick W. Taylor begins
 Differential rates  [1924-1927] Phase I: Illumination his time study work.
 Mnemonic systems study  [1901] Henry L. Gantt develops the
 [1917] 113 plants that had installed  [1927-1929] Phase II: Relay Assy. task and bonus wage system
“scientific management,” Study  [1903] Taylor presents paper on
59 considered their installations  [1929-1930]Phase III: interviewing shop management to ASME.
completely successful program  [1906] Taylor publishes paper On
20 partly successful  [1931-1932] Phase IV: bank wire the Art of Cutting Metals.
34 failures observation room  [1910] Interstate Commerce
 [1898] pig-iron experiment  Organizations Commission starts an investigation of
 Shoveling experiment  [1915] Taylor Society time study.
 Discovery of taylor-white process promote the science of Gilbreth publishes Motion Study.
 Developed equation for cutting management Gantt publishes Work, Wages, and
metal  [1917] Society of Industrial Profits.
 [1881] U.S. tennis doubles Engineers  [1911] Taylor publishes text The
champion organized by those interested in Principles of Scientific Management.
used an odd-looking racket he had production methods  [1912] Society to Promote the
designed with a spoon curved  [1913] American Management Science of Management is organized.
handle Association (AMA) Emerson estimates $1 million per
 [1915] died of pneumonia at age a group of training managers day can be saved if eastern
59 formed the National Association railroads apply scientific
 Jean Rodolphe Perronet of Corporate Schools management.
 French engineer Together with American Society  [1913] Emerson publishes The
 [1760] made extensive time of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Twelve Principles of Efficiency.
studies on the manufacture of No. 6 annually presents the Gantt Congress adds rider to
common pins Memorial Medal government appropriation bill
 Charles W. Babbage  [1936] Society for the stipulating that no part of this
 English economist Advancement of Managemenet (SAM) appropriation should be made
 conducted time studies on the Formed by the merger of the available for the pay of any
manufacture of No. 11 common pins Society of Industrial Engineers person engaged in time study
 Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and the Taylor Society work.
 Parents of motion study emphasized the importance of Henry Ford unveils the first
 founders of the modern motion- time study and methods and moving assembly line in Detroit.
study technique wage payment  [1915] Taylor Society is formed to
defined as the study of the body annually offers the Taylor key replace the Society to Promote the
motions used in performing an  [1972] SAM combined forces with Science of Management.
operation AMA  [1917] Frank B. and Lillian M.
 Developed micromotion--  [1948] Institute of Industrial Gilbreth publish Applied Motion Study.
technique of filming motions to study Engineers (IIE)  [1923] American Management
them maintaining the practice of Association is formed.
 Developed cyclegraphic and industrial engineering on a  [1927] Elton Mayo begins
chronocycle professional level Hawthorne study at Western Electric
Cyclegraphic method involves Society of Work Science - result of Company’s plant in Hawthorne, IL.
attaching a small electric merging the Work Measurment  [1933] Ralph M. Barnes receives
lightbulb to the finger or hand or and Ergonomics Divisions in 1994 the first Ph.D. granted in the United
part of the body being studied  [1949] Ergonomics Research States in the field of industrial
and then photographing the Society engineering from Cornell University. His
motion while the operator is First professional organization thesis leads to the publication of
performing the operation Founded in UK “Motion and Time Study.”
Chronocyclegraph is similar to the Started 1st professional journal,  [1936] Society for the
cyclegraph, but its electric circuit Ergonomics, in 1957 Advancement of Management is
is interrupted regularly, causing  [1957] The Human Factors and organized.
the light to flash Ergonomics Society  [1945] Department of Labor
 Frank died at 55; Lillian received US professional organization advocates establishing standards to
Ph.D. in psychology Goals: improve productivity of supplies for the
 Lillian died in 1972 at the age of 93  define and support human war effort.
 Carl G. Barth factors/ergonomics as a  [1947] Bill is passed allowing the
 an associate of Frederick W. scientific discipline and in War Department to use time study.
Taylor practice  [1948] The Institute of Industrial
 developed a production slide rule  educate and inform Engineers is founded in Columbus, Ohio.
for determining the most efficient business, industry, and Eiji Toyoda and Taichi Ohno at
combinations of speeds and feeds for government about human Toyota Motor Company pioneer
cutting metals factors/ergonomics the concept of lean production.
 Harrington Emerson  promote human  [1949] Prohibition against using
 applied scientific methods to factors/ergonomics as a stopwatches is dropped from
work on the Santa Fe Railroad and means for bettering the appropriation language.
wrote a book, “Twelve Principles of quality of life The Ergonomics Research Society
Efficiency”  Published archival journal, (now The Ergonomics Society) is
 Henry Laurence Gantt Human Factors and holds founded in the United Kingdom.
 [1917] developed simple graphs annual conferences where  [1957] The Human Factors and
that would measure performance while members can meet and Ergonomics Society is founded in the
visually showing projected schedules exchange ideas United States.
 Invented wage payment system  [1959]International Ergonomics E. J. McCormick publishes Human
that rewarded workers for above- Association Factors Engineering.
standard performance, eliminated any Umbrella organization  [1959] International Ergonomics
penalty for failure, and offered the boss Coordinate ergonomic activities at Association is founded to coordinate
a bonus for every worker who an international level ergonomics activities worldwide.
performed above standard  Present Trends READ BOOK kay basin naay  [1970] Congress passes the
 Ralph M. Barnes true or false (page 27-28) OSHAct, establishing the Occupational
 One of the first and best-known  DATES Safety and Health Administration.
professors of engineering  [1760] Perronet makes time  [1972] Society for the
 Wrote longest published text on studies on No. 6 common pins Advancement of Management
work measurement, a thorough
 combines with the American  Effect- occurrence of a typically Note: some analysts prefer to
Management Association. undesirable event or problem outline only operations. Results
 [1975]MIL-STD 1567 (USAF), Work  Causes- contributing factors are called outline process chart
Measurement, is released. Human  Vertical line - general flow
 [1981] NIOSH lifting guidelines are Machines  Horizontal line - material
first introduced. Methods  Flow process chart
 [1986] MIL-STD 1567A, Work Materials  Greater detail than operation process
Measurement Guidance Appendix, is Environmental chart
finalized. Administrative
 [1988] ANSI/HFS Standard 100-  Gantt chart
1988 for Human Factors Engineering of  first project planning and control
Visual Display Terminal Workstations is technique to emerge during the 1940s
released.  manage complex defense projects and
 [1990] Americans with Disabilities systems better
Act (ADA) is passed by Congress.  shows the anticipated completiontimes
Ergonomics Program for various project activities as bars  - record
Management Guidelines for plotted against time on the horizontal
Meatpacking Plants are axis
 - information added to record
established by OSHA. This serves  PERT charting
as a model for developing an  Program Evaluation and Review
OSHA ergonomics standard. Technique  - decision
 [1991] NIOSH lifting guidelines are  Also referred to as a network diagram or
revised. critical path method
 [1995] Draft ANSI Z-365 Standard  a planning and control tool that  - inpection w/ operation
for Control of Work-Related Cumulative graphically portrays the optimum way
Trauma Disorders is released. to attain some predetermined objective,
 [1995] MIL-STD 1567A Work generally in terms of time
Measurement is canceled.  Events  - transportation w/ operation
 [2001] OSHA Ergonomics presented by nodes  Flow diagram
Standard signed into law but rescinded are positions in time that show  A pictroial representation of the layout
soon afterward by Congress. the start and completion of a floors and bldgs., showing the
 [2006] 50th Anniversary of the particular operation or group of locations of all activities
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. operations  Indicates backtracking and possible
 Arc - activity traffic congestion areas
 Dummy activities  Worker and machine process charts
 Used to study, analyze, and improve
Chapter 2 Activities that utilize no time or
cost yet are necessary to maintain one workstation at a time
 Shows exact time relationship between
Problem-Solving Tools a correct sequence
the working cycle of the person and
Used to indicate precedence or
dependencies the operating cycle of the machine
 Select the project with the exploratory
 Critical path - longest path from the  Machine coupling - practice of having
tools
initial node to the final node one employee operate more thean
 Get and present data with the recording
 Float one machine
tools
activities not on critical path and  Gang process charts
 Develop the ideal method with
have certain time flexibility  An adaptation of the worker and
quantitative tools
Amount of time that a noncritical machine chart
activity can be lengthened w/o  Determine the most economical no. Of
 Pareto analysis and fish diagrams evolved delaying the project’s completion machines one worker can operate
from Japanese quality circle in the early 1960s date  Shows exact relationship between the
 Improve quality and reducing costs  Crashing - reduce the project idel and operating cycles of the
in their manufacturing processes completion time machine, and idle and operating
 Gantt and PERT charts emerged during times per cycle of workers who
1940s A ES EF service that machine
 better project planning and control of t LS LF
complex military projects Quantitative Tools, Worker and Machine
 project selection is based on three Where: Relationships
considerations: A = activity  Worker and machine relationship
 Economic T = expected activity duration  Synchronous servicing
 Most important ES = earliest start (from pinakadako nga Both the worker and machine are
 involve new products, for which previous EF) occupied during the whole
standards have not been implemented, EF = earliest finish (ES + t) cycle
or existing products that have a high LS = latest start (LF - t)
cost of manufacturing LF = latest finish (from pinakagamay na
 Technical previous LS)
 include processing techniques that Where:
need to be improved, quality control  Job/worksite analysis guide n=no.of machines the operator
problems  Identifies problems within a particular is assigned
 Human area, dept., or worksite l=total operator loading and
 involve highly repetitive jobs, leading unloading (servicing) time
to work-related musculoskeletal injuries, Recording and Analysis Tools per machine
high-accident-rate jobs, excessively  Operation process chart m=total machine running time
fatiguing jobs, or jobs about which  Shows the chronological sequence of all (automatic power feed)
workers constantly complain operations, inspections, time The no. Of machines that the
allowances, and materials used in a operator should be assigned
Exploratory Tools manufacturing or business process under realistic conditions can be
 Pareto Analysis  Symbols used: reestimated by the lowest whole
 Vilfredo Pareto  - operation no. From the revise equation:
economist  A part being studied is
 explain the concentration of wealth intentionally transformed
 Items of interest are identified and or when it is being studied
measured on a common scale and or planned prior to Where:
then are ordered in descending productive work being n1= lowest whole no.
order, as a cumulative distribution performed w= total worker time
 80-20 rule  - inspection  Random servicing
 Fish diagrams  Determine its conformity to These situations are those cases
 Cause-and-effect diagrams a standard in which it is not known when a
 Developed by Ishikawa in 1950s facility needs to be serviced or
how long servicing takes
  Complex relationships  maintain the order and  Methods analysts should consider the
Combination of synchronous and consistent approach to following possibilities for the direct and
random servicing housekeeping and the indirect materials utilized in a process:
Most common type of worker and methods 1. Finding a less expensive and lighter
machine relationships  Sustain (shitsuke) material
 Line balancing  maintains the full 5S  “A material that was not
 Procedure: process on a regular basis competitive in price yesterday
1. Draw precedence diagram may be very competitive today.”
2. Solve takt time: 9 primary approaches to operation analysis:  Methods analysts should
 O.T. = given time (convert if 1. Operation purpose remember that items can usually
necessary) 2. Part design be purchased at less cost than
����
 C.T. = takt time = ������ 3. Tolerances and specifications they can be manufactured
�� 4. Material 2. Finding materials that are easier to
3. Theoritical W.S. =
�.�. 5. Manufacture sequence and process process
4. Table for hypothetical W.S.[(W.S., 6. Setup and tools  Some materials are usually more
task in order, task selected, W.S. 7. Material handling readily processed than others.
time, idle time (C.T. - W.T.)] 8. Plant layout  Resin transfer molding can
��
5. Efficiency = 9. Work design produce more complex parts
(������ �.�.)(�.�.)
advantageously
3. Using materials more economically
Operation purpose  The possibility of using material
 most important of the nine points of more economically is a fertile
Chapter 3 operation analysis. field for analysis.
 If the ratio of scrap material to
Operation Analysis An analyst’s cardinal rule is to try to that actually going into the
eliminate or combine an operation before product is high, then greater
Methods analysts use operation analysis to trying to improve it. utilization should be examined.
study all productive and nonproductive  Powder coating is the application
 Eliminating an activity saves money on the
elements of an operation, to increase of a suitable formulation to a
installation of an improved method
productivity per unit of time, and to reduce substrate
unit costs while maintaining or improving  Coating powders are finely
Part Design
quality. divided particles of organic
 Methods engineers are often inclined to feel
that once a design has been accepted, polymers that usually contain
their only recourse is to plan its pigments, fillers, and additives
Operation analysis is the3rd methods step, the
economical manufacture. 4. Using salvage materials
one in which analysis takes place and the various
 Pointers for lower-cost designs  Materials can often be salvaged,
components of the proposed method crystallize.
 Reduce the number of parts by rather than sold as scrap.
simplifying the design. 5. Using supplies and tools more
 Lean manufacturing
 Reduce the number of operations and economically
 originated with the Toyota Motor
the length of travel in manufacturing by  Brazing or welding is usually the
Corporation as a means of eliminating most economical way to repair
joining the parts better and by making
waste in the aftermath of the 1973 oil expensive cutting tools, such as
the machining and assembly easier
embargo broaches, special form tools, and
 Utilise a better material
 Toyota Production System (TPS) milling cutters.
 Liberalize tolerances and rely on key
includes 7 steps of muda:  items such as gloves and rags
operations for accuracy, rather than on
 Overproduction should not be discarded simply
series of closely held limits
 Waiting for the next step because they are soiled
 Design for manufacturability and
 Unnecessary transportation  Storing dirty items and then
assembly
 Inappropriate processing laundering them is less expensive
 Criteria for the development of forms
 Excess inventory than replacing them
 Maintain simplicity in the form design,
 Unnecessary motion 6. Standardizing materials
keeping the amount of necessary input
 Defective products  The standardization of materials
information at a minimum.
 Muda - japanese of waste is a continuing process
 Provide ample space for each bit of
 overlaps with traditional approaches 7. Finding the best vendor from the
information, allowing for different input
are exemplified: standpoint of price and vendor stocking
methods
 waiting and transportation  It is usually the responsibility of
 Sequence the information input in a
wastes are elements to be the purchasing department to
logical pattern
examined and eliminated within locate the most favorable
 Color-code the form to facilitate
flow process charts analyses supplier.
distribution and routing
 waste of motion summarizes the  Keiretsu
 Confine computer forms to one page
Gilbreths’ lifelong work in motion  Most important reason for
study culminating the principles continues Japanese success
Tolerances and Specifications
of work design and motion in manufacturing sector
 Ability to satisfy given needs
economy  a form of business and
 Taguchi method (1986)
 waste of overproduction and manufacturing
 Approach to quality
excess inventory are based on the organization that links
 Dr. Genichi Taguchi
additional storage requirements businesses together
 Involves combining engineering and
and material handling
statistical methods to achieve
requirements to move items into Manufacture Sequence and Process
improvements in cost and quality by
and out of storage  time utilized by the manufacturing process is
optimizing product design and
 waste in defective products is an divided into three steps:
manufacturing methods
obvious waste producing scrap or  inventory control and planning
 Spot inspection
requiring rework  setup operations
 A periodic check to ensure that
 Corollaries to 7 mudas (5S system)  in-process manufacturing
established standards are being realized
 Sort (seiri)  To improve the manufacturing process, the
 Lot-by-lot inspection
 removing all unnecessary analyst should consider:
 a sampling procedure in which a sample
items from the workplace 1. Rearranging the operations
is examined to determine the quality of
and leaving only the bare  often results in savings
the production run or lot
essentials  Lost foam is an investment
 100 percent inspection
 Set in order (seiton) casting procedure that uses an
 involves inspecting every unit of
 arranges needed items so expendable pattern of
production and rejecting the defective
that they are easy to find polystyrene foam surrounded by
units
and use a thin ceramic shell
 experience has shown that this type of
 Shine (seiso)  Steel-mold castings require
inspection does not ensure a perfect
 ensures further cleanliness considerable subsequent
product
and tidiness machining
 Standardize (seiketsu) 2. Mechanizing manual operations
Material
  The application of mechanization  following five points should be considered for  Environmental impacts and
applies not only to process reducing the time spent in handling energy consumption are criteria
operations, but also to material: to be considered
paperwork 1. Reduce the time spent in picking up  Life-cycle-cost principle
3. Utilizing more efficient facilities on material  A thorough economic analysis
mechanical operations 2. Use mechanized or automated should account for the entire life
If an operation is done equipment cycle of all material handling
mechanically, there is always the  Equipment standardization is equipment and resulting systems
possibility of a more efficient important because it simplifies
means of mechanization operator training, allows Plant Layout
4. Operating mechanical facilities more equipment interchangeability,  Objective: develop a production system that
efficiently and requires fewer repair parts permits the manufacture of the desired
 “design for two at a time”  Automated guided vehicle (AGV) number of products with the desired
 multiple-die operation in can replace a driver quality at the least cost
presswork is more economical 3. Make better use of existing handling  Layout types
than single-stage operation facilities
5. Manufcaturing near the net shape  both the methods and the No type of layout tends to be the best. A
 can maximize material use, equipment should be sufficiently given layout can be best in one set of
reduce scrap, minimize secondary flexible that a variety of material conditions and yet poor in a different set of
processing handling tasks can be conditions
6. Using robots, all which adress the muda accomplished under variable
of inappropriate processing conditions  All plant layouts represent one or a
 it is advantageous today to 4. Handle material with greater care combination of 2 basic layouts:
consider the use of robots in  40% of plant accidents happen  Product or straight-line layouts
many manufacturing areas during material handling  Process or functional layouts
 Principal advantage: inherent operations, 25% are caused by  Product layout
flexibility lifting and shifting material [disadvantage]
 robots also offer safety 5. Consider the application of bar coding  Since a broad variety of
advantages for inventory and related applications occupations are
 Bar coding has shortened queues represented in a relatively
Setup and Tools at grocery and department store small area, employee
 Economics - One of the most important checkout lines dissatisfaction can escalate
elements of all forms of work holders,  Once this Universal Product Code  This arrangement tends to
tools, and setups (UPC) is scanned, the decoded appear disorderly and
 amount of tooling up that proves most data are sent to a computer that chaotic
advantageous depends on records timely information on  Process layout
 Production quantity labor productivity, inventory  grouping of similar facilities
 Repeat business status, and sales  gives a general appearance of
 Labor  5 reasons justify bar coding neatness and orderliness, and
 Delivery requirements  Accuracy tends to promote good
 Required capital  performance is less than 1 error in housekeeping
 Reduce setup time 3.4 million characters  [disadvantage] the possibility
 Just-in-time (JIT) techniques -  Performance that long moves and backtracking
emphasize decreasing the setup times  enters data three to four times will be needed on jobs that
to the minimum by simplifying or faster than typical keyboard entry require a series of operations on
eliminating them  Acceptance diversified machines; large
 SMED (single minute exchange of  Most employees enjoy using the volume of paperwork required to
die) System of the Toyota scanning wand issue orders and control
Production System (Shingo, 1981)  Low cost production between sections
is a good example of this  Cost of adding this identification  Travel charts or from-to charts
approach is extremely low  can be helpful in diagnosing
 Several points should be considered in  Portability problems related to the
reducing setup time:  An operator can carry a bar code arrangement of departments and
1. Work that can be done while the scanner into any area service areas, as well as the
equipment is running should be  10 principles of material handling: location of equipment within a
done at that time  Planning principle given sector of the plant
2. Use the most efficient clamping  All material handling should be  is a matrix that presents the
3. Eliminate machine base the result of a deliberate plan magnitude of material handling
adjustment  Standardization principle that takes place between two
4. Use templates or block gages to  Material handling methods, facilities per time period
make quick adjustments to equipment, controls, and  Muther’s systematic layout planning
machine stops software should be standardized (SLP)
 Utilize the full capacity of the machine  Work principle  systematic approach to plant
 Introduce more efficient tooling  Material handling work should be layout
minimized without sacrificing  Developed by Muther (1973)
Material Handling productivity or the level of service  Goal: locate two areas with high
 Includes: required of the operation frequency and logical
 Motion  Ergonomic principle relationships close to one another
 Time  Human capabilities and using a straightforward six-step
 Place limitations must be recognized procedure:
 Quantity and respected  Chart relationships
 Space constraints  Unit load principle  relationships
 Unit loads shall be appropriately between different
1. Material handling must ensure that parts, raw sized and configured areas are established
materials, in-process materials, finished  Space utlization principle and then charted on
products, and supplies are moved periodically  Effective and efficient use must a special form called
from location to location be made of all available space relationship chart (rel
2. Material handling ensures that no production  System principle chart)
process or customer is hampered by either  Material movement and storage  Establish space
the early or late arrival of materials activities should be fully requirements
3. Material handling must ensure that materials integrated  space requirements
are delivered to the correct place  Automation principle are established in
4. Material handling must ensure that materials  Material handling operations terms of square
are delivered at each location without damage should be mechanized and/or footage
and in the proper quantity automated  Activity relationships
5. Material handling must consider storage  Environmental principle diagram
space, both temporary and dormant  a visual
representation of the
 different activities is  Supervisor’s responsibility decimal minute watch, or hours per piece,
drawn  Union’s responsibility using a decimal hour watch
 Layout space relationships  Operator’s responsibility  Temporary standards
 a spatial  Effect for a duration of contracto or for
representation is Time Study Equipment 60 days, whichever is shorter
created by scaling  Stopwatch  Setup standards
the areas in terms of  Types :  Analyst should use the identical
relative size  Traditional decimal minute watch procedure followed in establishing
 Evaluate alternative (0.01 min) - has 100 divisions on production standards, except that there
arrangements its face, each division is equal to will be no opportunity to get a series of
 With numerous 0.01 min elemental values for determining the
possible layouts, it  Electronic stopwatch - provide mean times
would not be resolution to 0.001s and an  2 ways of handling setup times
unusual to find that accuracy of ±0.002%  Distributed by quantity
several appear to be  Time study board  Distributed over a specific
equally likely  When stopwatch is used, analysts find it manufacturing quantity
possibilities convenient to have a suitable board to  Suitable only whne
 Select layout and install hold the time study form and the magnitude of production
 implement the new stopwatch order is standard
method  Time study forms  Not practical if size of order
 All details are recorded on a time study is not controlled
 Computer-aided layout form  Allocated by job
 Commercially available software  Provides space to record all pertinent  Partial setups
can help analysts develop realistic information  Frequently, it Is not necessary to setup
layouts rapidly and inexpensively  Time study software a facility completely to perform a given
 Computerized Relative Allocation  Time study operation
Facilities (CRAFT) program is one  By Royal J. Dossett Corp.
that has been used extensively  Uses a custom-builty Datawriter
 calculates the distance  CITS/APR
Chapter 11
matrix as the rectangular  C-four Performance Rating and
distances from the  Uses more versatile handhelp PCs
department centroids to collect data
Allowances
 Computerized Relationship  Palm CITS
Layout Planning (CORELAP)  C-four  Performance rating
 Input requirements:  QuickTimesTM  Most important step in the entire work
 No. Of departments  Applied Cimputer Services Inc. measurement procedure
 Departmental areas  Training equipment  Subject to criticism
 Departmental  Can be set to provide a predetermined  means of adjusting the observed time
relationships no. Of beats per min. on a job, so as to derive the time
 Weights for these  Pocket calculator required for a qualified operator to do
relationships  Videotape equipment the job when working at a standard
 Objective: provide a layout  Ideal for recording operators’ methods pace
with “high-ranking” and elapsed time
departments close Standard Performance
together Time Study Elements  is defined as the level of performance
 Automated Layout Design 1. Choosing the operator attained by a thoroughly experienced
Programs (ALDEP) 2. Recording significant information operator working under customary
 constructs plant layouts by 3. Positioning the observer conditions at a pace neither too fast nor
randomly selecting a 4. Dividing the operation into elements too slow, but representative of one that
department and locating it can be maintained throughout the day
in a given layout Start of Study
 Structured Process Improvement 2 techniques for recording elemental times: Sound Rating Characteristics
Approach for Requirements and  Accuracy
Lingquistics (SPIRAL) Studies of predominantly long elements are  The first and most important
 attempts to optimize the more adaptes to snapback reading, while characteristic of any rating system
adjacency relationship by short-cycle studies are better suited to  Perfect consistency in rating is impossible
summing the positive continuous method.  The frequency of rating depends on the cycle
relationships and deducting  Continuous timing method time
the negative relationships  allows the stopwatch to run for the
for adjacent areas entire duration of the study Rating Methods
 analyst reads the watch at the break  Speed rating
 is a performance evaluation method
Chapter 10 point of each element, and the time is
that considers only the rate of work per
allowed to continue
unit time
Time Study  Snapback technique
 after the watch is read at the break  The westinghouse system
point of each element, the watch time is  One of the oldest used rating systems
The 7th step in systematic process of returned to zero; as the next element  developed by Westinghouse Electric
developing efficient work center is the takes place, the time increments from Corporation (Lowry, Maynard, and
establishment of time standards zero Stegemerten, 1940)
 considers four factors in evaluating the
Execution of Study performance of the operator:
1. Rating operator performance  Skill
A Fair Day’s Work
 Qualified operator - defined as a  Effort
 Amount of work that can be produced by a
thoroughly experienced operator  Conditions
qualified employee when working at a
working under customary conditions  Consistency
standard pace and effectively utilizing her
 Principle of performance rating - adjust  Skill
orhis time where work is not restriced by
the mean observed time (OT) for each  “proficiency at following a given
process limitations
element performed during the study to method”
 Qualified employee - can be defined as
the normal time (NT)  6 classes:
representative average of those
2. Adding allowances  Poor
employees who are fully trained
 3 classes of interruptions:  Fair
 Standard pace - can be defined as
 Personal interruptions  Average
effective rate or performance
 Fatique  Good
 Effective utilization - can be defined as
 Unavoidable delays  Excellent
maintenance of a standard pace
 Super
 Fair to both the company and the employee
Standard Time  Effort
 the sum of the elemental times gives the  “demonstration of the will to
Time Study Requirements
standard in minutes per piece, using a work effectively”
 Analyst’s responsibility
  6 classes:  Analysts overrated low performance  The most immediate result of muscle
 Poor levels and underrated high performance fatigue is the significant reduction in
 Fair levels muscle strength
 Average  results in a relatively flat line compared  Rohmert(1960) quantified these
 Good to the expected line principles as follows:
 Excellent  The novice rater who rates higher than the 1. Reduction in maximum strength
 Excessive true value for performances below standard occurs if the static holding force
 Conditions performance produces a loose rate exceeds 15 percent of maximum
 affect the operator and not the  company would lose money on that strength.
operation, and they include operation 2. The longer the static muscular
temperature, ventilation, light,  Novice rater who rates lower than the true contraction, the greater the
and noise value produces a tight rate reduction in muscle strength.
 6classes (+6% to -7%):  a time that is difficult for operators to 3. Individual or specific muscle
 Ideal achieve variations are minimized if forces
 Excellent are normalized to the individual’s
 Good Allowances maximum strength for that
 Aveerage  analysts must make some adjustment to muscle.
 Fair compensate for losses 4. Recovery is a function of the degree
 Poor  Allowances are applied to three parts of the of fatigue; that is, a given percent
 Consistency study: decrease in maximal strength will
 consistency of the operator must  Total cycle time (% of cycle time) require a given amount of
be evaluated as the study is  compensate for such delays as recovery.
worked up personal needs, cleaning the  Atmospheric conditions
 6 classes: workstation, and oiling the  International Labour Organization (ILO)
 Perfect machine allowances - based on an outdated
 Excellent  Machine time only concept of cooling power, and they
 Goo  time for tool maintenance and greatly underpredict required rest
 Average power variance allowances
 Fair  Manual effort time only  Noise level
 Poor  representative delays (fatigue  Occupational Safety and Health
 Perfect consistency is rated +4% and certain unavoidable delays) Administration (OSHA, 1983) has
 Poor consistency is rated -4%  Two methods are frequently used for established permissible noise exposures
 Synthetic rating developing standard allowance data: for workers in industry
 Morrow 1946  Direct observation  permissible levels depend on the
 Does not rely on the judgment of a time  requires observers to study two, duration of the exposure
study observer and would give or perhaps three, operations over  total exposure to various noise levels
consistent results a long time cannot exceed a 100-percent dose
 Objective rating  Work sampling studies  90 dBA is the maximum permissible
 Mundel and Danner 1994  requires taking a large number of level for an 8-h day, and any sound level
 eliminates the difficulty of establishing a random observations above 90 dBA will require a relaxation
standard pace for every type of work  No stopwatch is used allowance
 Factors influencing difficulty  Fatigue allowances  Illumination levels
adjustments:  provide time for the worker to recover  a task that is slightly below
 Amount of body used from fatigue incurred as a result of the recommended guidelines can be
 Foot pedals job or work environment considered to be within the same
 Bimanualness  Subdivided into: illumination subcategory
 Eye-hand coordination  constant  A task that is well below adequate
 Handling or sensory requirements  variable fatigue allowances illumination may be defined as being
 Weight handled or resistance  Special allowances one subcategory beneath its
encountered  Factors: recommended illumination and is
 unavoidable delays assigned a 2 percent allowance
Rating Application and Analysis  avoidable delays  A task with quite inadequate
 The value of a rating is written in the R  Extra illumination may be defined as being
column of the time study form.  policy allowances two or more subcategories below its
 Typically, the decimal point is omitted, and a recommended level and receives a 5
whole number value is written to save Constant Allowances percent allowance
time  Personal needs  Visual strain
 Four criteria determine whether time study  include those cessations in work  provides no allowance for fairly fine
analysts using speed rating can necessary for maintaining the general work
consistently establish values within 5 well-being of the employee  2% allowance for fine or exacting work
percent of the rating average calculated  Basic fatigue  5% allowance for very fine or very
by a group of trained analysts:  a constant to account for the energy exacting work
1. Experience in the class of work performed expended to carry out the work and to  Greatest factors
2. Use of synthetic benchmarks on at least alleviate monotony  Background luminance of the
two of the elements performed task
3. Selection of an operator who gives Variable Fatique Allowances  Contrast
performances somewhere between 85 and  Basic principles  Time available for observation
115 percent of standard pace  usually applied only to the effort  Size of target, measured as a
4. Use of the mean value of three or more portions of the study visual andle in arc minutes
independent studies and/or different  It ranges from strictly physical to purely  Mental strain
operators psychological or combinations of the  is very difficult to measure clearly
two across many types of tasks
 Factors affecting fatigue:  an understanding of the factors that
Rating Training  Working conditions make a task complex, on which models
 To be successful, analysts must develop track  Nature of work are lacking
records for setting accurate standards that  General health of worker  Monotony
are accepted by both labor and  One method of determining the fatigue  “the result of repeated use of certain
management allowance is to measure the decline in mental faculties, as in mental arithmetic”
 One of the most widely used training production throughout the working  Tediousness
methods is the observation of videotapes period  0% for a rathertedious task
illustrating diverse operations performed  Abnormal posture  2% for a tedious task
at different productivity levels  based on metabolic considerations and  5% for a very tedious task
 Straight line - perfection can be supported by metabolic models  “repeated use of certain members of
 high irregularities on both sides of the line - that have been developed for various the body, such as fingers, hands, arms
inconsistency as well as an inability to activities (Garg, Chaffin, and Herrin, or legs”
evaluate performance 1978)
 Regression to the mean  Muscular force Special Allowances
 Unavoidable delays
  applies to effort elements and includes 2. Analyze elements and collect data  Case involved
interruptions from the supervisor,  next step is to collect data for the  Simple contact grasp
dispatcher, time study analyst, and formula, written from existing studies  Picked up by simply
others or taking new studies, to obtain a enclosing fingers
 Avoidable delays sufficiently large sample to cover the with single
 It is not customary to provide any range of work for the formula movement
allowance for avoidable delays 3. Plot data and compute variable expressions  If neither A or B, then
 Extra allowances  Data are posted to a spreadsheet for case is C GET
 allowance for personal, unavoidable, analysis of constants and variables  Distance traveled
and fatigue delays usually approximates  General linear test - a formalized  Weight handled
15% procedure for computing the best  can be considered a composite of
 extra allowance would be needed for model therbligs reach, grasp, and
the additional fatigue in manually  Computes the decrease in release
handling the work unexplained variance between:  PUT
 Attention time - a percentage added to  Reduced model -the  is a combination of therbligs
a portion or all of the cycle time to simpler model move and position
account for the operator observing the  Full model - more complex  involves moving an object to a
process to maintain efficient progress model estination with hands or fingers
of the operation  cases
 Tool maintenance allowance provides 4. Check for accuracy and finalize  No corection
time for the operator to maintain tools  Analysts should verify it before  One correction
after the original setup releasing it for use  More than one correction
 Policy allowances  Easiest and fastest way to check the  can be accombplished in 2 ways:
 provide a satisfactory level of earnings formula is to use it to check existing  Insertion
for a specified level of performance time studies  Involves placing one
under exceptional circumstances 5. Write the formula report object into another
Applying Allowances  Analyst should consolidate all data,  Alignment
 fundamental purpose of all allowances is to calculations, derivations, and  Involves orienting a
add enough time to normal production applications of the formula and present part on a surface
time to enable the average worker to this information in a complete report  PUT WEIGHT (PW)
meet the standard when performing at prior to putting the formula into use  Additions are 1TMU per 10lb (5kg)
standard performance of effective weight up to a max of
 2 ways of applying allowances Analytical Formulas 40 lb (20kg)
 Add a percentage to the normal time  Drill press work  GET WEIGHT (GW)
 Apply percent allowance to total  Drill - fluted end-cutting tool used to  1TMU per 2lb (1kg)
working day originate or enlarge a hole in solid  REGRASP (R)
material  Time of 6 TMU is assigned
 Drill speed is expressed in ft./min  For this to be in effect, hand must
Chapter 12  Lathe work retain control
Standard Data and Formulas  Include the engine lathe, turret lathe,  APPLY PRESSURE (A)
automatic lathe (automatic screw  Has a time of 14 TMU
machine)  Can be applied by any member of
 Standard time data - are elemental time
 Milling machine work the body and that the max
obtained from time studies that have been
 Milling - removal of material w/ a permissable movement for an
stored for later use
rotating multiple-tooth cutter apply pressure is 1/4 in (6.4mm)
 Frederick W. Taylor
 EYE ACTION (E)
 Established applying standard data
 Is allowed under either of the ff
 Proposed that each elemental time be Chapter 13 cases:
properly indexed so that it could be
used to establish future time standards Predetermined Time Systems  Eyes must move to see
various aspects of
 Standard data can have several levels of
operation
refinement: motion, element, and task  Basic motion times, synthetic times,
 Eyes must concentrate on
 Time study formula is an alternative and predetermined times
an object to recognize a
simpler presentation of standard data,  Assigned to fundamental motions and
distinguishible
especially for variable elements groups of motions that can’t be
characteristic
 Formula construction involves the design of precisely evaluated w/ ordinary
 7 TMU
an algebraic expression stopwatch time study procedures
 CRANK (C)
 Basic - further refinement is both
 Occurs when hands or fingers
Standard Time Data Development difficult and impractical
move an object in a circular path
 General approach  Synthetic - often the result of logical
of more than one-half revolution
 Constant element - time remains combinations of therbligs
 2 variables: number of revolutions
approximately the same, cycle after  Predetermined - used to predict
and weight or resistance
cycle standard yimes for new work resulting
 15 TMU
 Variable element - time varies within a from methods changes
 FOOT (F)
specified range of work
 9TMU
 Typical standard data for machine Methods-Time Measurement
 STEP (S)
operation would be tabulated as  MTM-1
 18 TMU
follows:  Maynard, Stegemerten, Schwab (1948)
 BEND & ARISE (B)
 Setup  Gives time values for the fundamental
 Occurs when body changes its
 Constants motions of reach, move, turn, grasp,
vertical position
 Variables position, disengage, and release
 61 TMU
 Each pc  MTM - a procedure which analyzes any
 MTM-3
 Constants manual operation or method into basin
 3rd level of methods-time measurement
 Variables motions required to perform it, and
 Supplement MTM-1 anf MTM-2
 Tabular data assigns to each motion a pre-
 Works best in situations where interest
 To avoid overloading existing determined time standard which is
in saving time at the expense of some
equipment, the analyst should have determined by the nature of the motion
accuracy makes it the best alternative
information on the workload being and the conditions under which it is
 Accuracy Is ±5%, w/ a 95% confidence
assigned to each machine for the made
level
conditions under which the material is  MTM-1 data - result of frame-by-frame
 Can’t be used in operations that require
being removed analyses of motion picture films of
eye focus or eye travel time since data
 Using monograms and plots diversified areas of work
do not consider those motions
 MTM-2
 4 categories of manual motions:
Formulas Construction from Empirical Data  A system of synthesized MTM data and
 Handle (H) - a motion sequence
1. Identify variables is the 2nd general level of MTM data
w/ the purpose of gtting control
 first step in formula construction is to  TMU - Time Measurement Unit
of an object with the hand or
identify the dependent and indepedent  GET (G)
fingers and placing the object in a
variables involved  Variables affecting GET:
new location
  Transport (T) - a motion w/ the Adjust These subactivities are grouped
purpose of moving an object to a Body motions into 3 phases:
new location w/ the hand or Writing  Get - reaching some
fingers  MTM-MEK distance w/ hands
 Step and foot motions (SF) - same Measure one-of-a-kind and small-  Put
as defined in MTM-2 [BISAG WAY lot production (A) moving object
MEANING BA] Objectives: some distance to a
 Bend and arise (B) - Occurs when  Provide accurate new location
body changes its vertical position measurement of an act. (B) w/ body motion
 Case A or B is determined by Connected with one-of- (P) placing object at a
whether there is a correcting a-kind or small-lot specified location
motion or not production  Return
 MTM-V  Provide an easily definable  Controlled move
 Developed by Svenska MTM Gruppen description of Describes movement of an object
 Swedish MTM Association unorganized work when it either remians in
 Use in metal cutting operations  Provide fast application contact with a surface or
 Provides for work elements involved in:  Provide accuracy relative to remains attached to another
 Bringing the work to the jig, MTM-1 object during the movement
fixture, or chuck, removing the work  Require minimum training Covers manual operations
from the machine, and placing it and application practice Subactivities used:
inside Data consist of 51 time values in 8  (A) previously defined
 Operating the machine categories: action distance
 Checking the work to ensure  Get and place  (B) body motion
quality of output  Handle tool  (G) gain control
 Cleaning the nip point area of the  Place  (M) move control
machine  Operate  (X) process time
 MTM-C  Motion cycles  (I) alignment
 Widely used in backing and insurance  Fasten or loosen  Tool and equipment use
industries  Body motions Aimed at the use of common
 2-level standard data used to establish  Visual control hand tools and other pcs of
time standard for clerical-related Data with 290 time values: equipment
work tasks  Fasten Covers 1/6 of all work sequences
 MTM-C Level 1 can be calculated faster  Clamp and unclamp Combination of general move and
than MTM-2  Clean and/or apply controlled move
 Speed of MTM-C level 2 is faster than lubricant/adhesive 5 phases:
MTM-3  Assemble standard parts  Get tool - reaching some
 9 level 1 categories:  Inspect and measure distance w/ hands for
1. Get place  Mark and transport the tool
2. Open/close  MTM-UAS  Put tool in place for use -
3. Fasten/unfasten 3rd level system moving tool to where it
4. Organize file Provide a process description will be used
5. Read/write Determine the standard times in  Use the tool
6. Keyboarding any activity related to batch Common actions:
7. Handling Walk body motion production  F= fasten
8. Machines Applicable to activities with the ff  L=loosen
 Level 2 categories characteristics:  C=cut
1. Get/Place/Aside  Similar tasks  S=surface
2. Open/Close  Workplace specifically treat
3. Fasten/Unfasten designed for the task  M=measure
4. Identify  Good levels of work  R=record
5. Locate file organization  T=think
6. Read/write  Detailed instructions  W=keyboard
7. Handling  Well-trained operators  K=keypad
8. Body motions  H=letter or
9. Keyboarding Maynard Operation Sequence Technique (MOST) paper handling
 MTM-M  simplified system and orginally applied at  Put the tool aside - similar
 A predetermined time system for Saab-Scania in Sweden in 1967 to put in general move
evaluating operator work using a  Developed by Zandin 1980  Return to workplace (if
microscope  3 levels: needed) -
 4 variables when selecting data 1. MaxiMOST (highest)  MOST is also available in a computerized
Type of tool a) Analyze long, infrequent version which permits the retrieval of
Condition of tool operations (2min to several activity sequences, subactivities, and the
Terminating characteristic of the hrs, less than 150 times/week) indexed parameters involved in
motion b)Very quick but less accurate developing a standard of performance for
Distance/tolerance ratio 2. MiniMOST (lowest) the method under study
 Additional factors that have impact on a) For short and very frequent
motion performace time: operations (1.6 min, 1500 Predetermined Time Application
Tool load stat, empty, or loaded times/week)  Standard data development
Microscope power b)Very detailed and precise but  One of the most important uses of
Distance moved time-consuming predetermined time systems
Positioning tolerance 3. BasicMOST (intermediate)  standard times for operations can be
Purpose of motion a) Covers operations between 2 set much faster
Simultaneous motions ranges described above (best  usually reduce clerical errors, since less
 Other specialized MTM systems if 0.5 to 3 min) arithmetic is involved
 MTM-TE  3 basic sequence models:  Sound standard data - it is economically
For electronic tests  General move feasible to establish standards on
2 levels of data (developed from Identifies spatial free movement indirect work
MTM-1 of an object through air  Methods analysis
 Level 1: To identify the exact way a  equally important use for any
Get general move is performed, predetermined time system
Move analysts consider:
Body motions  Action distance (A) -
Identify horizaontal movement
Adjust distance
Miscellaneous data  Body motion (B) - vertical
Level 2: motion
Get and place  Gain control (G)
Read and identify  Placement (P)
  Using control charts
Chapter 14  control chart techniques used in
Work Sampling statistical quality control work can
readily be applied to work sampling
studies to identify problem areas
 Work sampling
 Recording observations
 allows time and methods analysts to
 analyst should walk to a fixed point,
obtain information on machine and
make the observation, and record the
operator utilization
facts
 a technique used to investigate the
Machine and Operator Utilization
proportions of total time devoted to
 Analysts can use work sampling to determine
the various activities that constitue a
machine and operator utilization
job or work situation
 Since the principal purpose of the study was
 First applied in British textile industry
to learn the status of the actual cutting
 Advantages:
time in this section, an analyst kept a
 It does not require continuous
cumulative percentage machine cutting
observation by an analyst over a
chart
long time
 Clerical time is diminished
Determining Allowances
 The total work-hours expended
 determination of allowances must be correct,
by the analyst are usually much
if fair standards are to be developed
fewer
 The operator is not subjected to
Self Observation
long-period stopwatch
 Managers and salaried workers should
observations
periodically take work samples of their
 Crew operations can be readily
own work to evaluate the effectiveness of
studied by a single analyst
their time usage
 Performance-rated work sampling
 useful in determining the amount of
Work Sampling Software
time that should be allocated for
 Using a computer can save an estimated 35
unavoidable delays, work stoppages,
percent of the total work sampling study
and the like
cost, because of the high percentage of
clerical effort relative to actual
Theory of Work Sampling
observation time
 Based on fundamental law of probability: “at

a given instant, an event can be either
present or absent”
 Binomial distribution - distribution of
probabilities
 Can be used to estimate total sample size
needed to achieve a certain degree of
accuracy

Selling Work Sampling

 Before beginning a work sampling program,
the analyst must “sell” its use and
reliability to all members of the
organization who will be affected by the
results
 analyst should create a simple study by
tossing unbiased coins
 analyst should discuss the probable
results of tossing four unbiased coins
 analyst should point out that a machine
or operator could figuratively be in a
heads or tails state

Planning the Work Sampling Study

 Plan:
 Preliminary estimate of activities on
which info is sought
 Analyst can determine the desired
accuracy of results
 Analyst must estimate no. Of
observations to be made and determine
frequence of observation
 Analyst designs work sampling form on
which to tabulate the data as well as
the control charts used in conjuction w/
the study
 Determining the number of observations
needed
 To determine the number of
observations needed, the analyst must
know the desired accuracy of the
results
 More observations, more valid ang final
answer
 Determining observation frequency
 frequency of the observations depends
on the number of observations required
and the time available to develop the
data
 Designing the work sampling form
 The analyst should design an
observation form to record the data to
be gathered during the work sampling
study