Manual de Fórmulas (Steel Forming An Heat Trating Hand Book)
Manual de Fórmulas (Steel Forming An Heat Trating Hand Book)
DISCLAIMER:
The formulas and information compiled in this text are provided without warranty of any kind.
Use them at your own risk!
A Non-Stop Work.
First Release: 04 April 2002
This Version: 24 March 2010
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 1
. Grange
Ae1 1333 25 Mn 40 Si 42 Cr 26 Ni
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature for Austenitization Start [°F]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°F]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
. Andrews
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization Start [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Ae3 910 203 C 44.7 Si 15.2 Ni 31.5 Mo 104 V 13,1 W 30.0 Mn 11.0 Cr 20.0 Cu 700 P 400 Al 120 As
400 Ti
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 2
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for Austenitization End [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Both formulas are valid for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C.
Source: ANDREWS, K.W. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of Some Transformation Temperatures. Journal of the
Iron and Steel Institute, 203, Part 7, July 1965, 721-727.
. Roberts
Notation:
Ae3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Fn: value defined according to the table below:
C Fn
0.05 24
0.10 48
0.15 64
0.20 80
0.25 93
0.30 106
0.35 117
0.40 128
Source: ROBERTS, W.L.: Flat Processing of Steel; Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1988.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 3
. Eldis
Notation:
Ae1: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization Start [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notation:
Ac3: Equilibrium Temperature for End of Austenitization [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Both formulas were proposed by ELDIS for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C.
Source: BARRALIS, J. & MAEDER, G. Métallurgie Tome I: Métallurgie Physique. Collection Scientifique ENSAM,
1982, 270 p.
. Park
Notation:
Ac3: Austenitization Final Temperature in Heating [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 4
Notes:
- Formula specifically developed for TRIP steels.
Source: PARK, S.H. et al. Development of Ductile Ultra-High Strength Hot Rolled Steels. Posco Technical Report, 1996,
50-128.
Acm 224.4 992.4 C 465.1 C 2 46.7 Cr 19.0 C Cr 6.1 Cr 2 7.6 Mn 10.0 Mo 6.8 Cr Mo 6.9 Ni 3.7 C Ni 2.7 Cr Ni
0.8 Ni 2 16.7 Si
Notation:
Acm: Austenitization Start Temperature [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Equation valid for the following alloy range: 0.2% C 0.7; Mn 1.5%; Si 0.3%; Ni 2.8%; Cr 1.5%; Mo
0.6%.
Source: LEE, S.J. & LEE, Y.K. Thermodynamic Formula for the Acm Temperature of Low Alloy Steels. ISIJ
International, 47:5, May 2007, 769-774.
. Kasatkin
Ac1 723 7.08 Mn 37.7 Si 18.1 Cr 44.2 Mo 8.95 Ni 50.1 V 21.7 Al 3.18 W 297 S 830 N 11.5 C Si 14.0 Mn Si
3.10 Si Cr 57.9 C Mo 15.5 Mn Mo 5.28 C Ni 6.0 Mn Ni 6.77 Si Ni 0.80 Cr Ni 27.4 C V 30.8 Mo V 0.84 Cr 2
3.46 Mo 2 0.46 Ni 2 28 V 2
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 5
Notation:
Ac1: Austenitization Start Temperature in Heating [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Multiple Correlation Coefficient r = 0.96
- Residual Mean-Square Deviation √do = 10.8°C
Ac 3 912 370 C 27.4 Mn 27.3 Si 6.35 Cr 32.7 Ni 95.2 V 190 Ti 72.0 Al 64.5 Nb 5.57 W 332 S 276 P 485 N
900 B 16.2 C Mn 32.3 C Si 15.4 C Cr 48.0 C Ni 4.32 Si Cr 17.3 Si Mo 18.6 Si Ni 4.80 Mn Ni 40.5 Mo V
174 C 2 2.46 Mn 2 6.86 Si 2 0.322 Cr 2 9.90 Mo 2 1.24 Ni 2 60.2 V 2
Notation:
Ac3: Equilibrium Temperature of Austenitization End in Heating [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Multiple Correlation Coefficient r = 0.98
- Residual Mean-Square Deviation √do = 14.5°C
T 188 370 C 7.93 Mn 26.8 Cr 33.0 Mo 23.5 Ni 52.5 V 194 Ti 47.8 Al 87.4 Nb 3.82 W 266 P 53.0 C Si
20.7 C Cr 6.26 Si Cr 64.2 C Mo 55.2 C Ni 10.8 Mn Ni 1.33 Cr 2 8.83 Mo 2 1.91 Ni 2 37.8 V 2
Notation:
ΔT: Intercritical Temperature Range [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 6
Notes:
- Multiple Correlation Coefficient r = 0.97
- Residual Mean-Square Deviation √do = 16.8°C
- These equations are valid within these composition limits: C ≤ 0.83%, Mn ≤ 2.0%, Si ≤ 1.0%, Cr ≤ 2.0%, Mo ≤
1.0%, Ni ≤ 3.0%, V ≤ 0.5%, W ≤ 1.0%, Ti ≤ 0.15%, Al ≤ 0.2%, Cu ≤ 1.0%, Nb ≤ 0.20%, P ≤ 0.040%, S ≤ 0.040%,
N ≤ 0.025%, B ≤ 0.010%.
Source: KASATKIN, O.G. et al. Calculation Models for Determining the Critical Points of Steel. Metal Science and Heat
Treatment, 26:1-2, January-February 1984, 27-31.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 7
. Boratto et al.
Tnr 887 464 C (6445 Nb 644 Nb ) (732 V 230 V ) 890 Ti 363 Al 357 Si
Notation:
Tnr: Temperature of No-Recrystallization [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Equation valid under the following alloy range: 0.04% C 0.17%; 0.41% Mn 1.90; 0.15% Si 0.50%;
0.002% Al 0.650; Nb 0.060%; V 0.120%; Ti 0.110%; Cr 0.67%; Ni 0.45.
Source: BORATTO, F. et al.: Effect of Chemical Composition on Critical Temperatures of Microalloyed Steels. In:
THERMEC ‘88. Proceedings. Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1988, p. 383-390.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 8
. General
(a M ) m (a X ) n [M ]m [ X ]n Q C A
log 10 k s log 10 log 10 B
aM m X n [ MX ] 2.303 RT 2.303 T
Notation:
MmXn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
Ai: Activity
M, X: Alloy Contents [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
C: Constant
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table below:
Precipitate A B Source
7060 1.55 Narita
6770 1.03 Irvine
AlN
7750 1.80 Ashby
BN 13970 5.24 Fountain
Cr23C6 7375 5.36 Ashby
Mo2C 7375 5.00 Ashby
7900 3.42 Narita
NbC
7290 3.04 Meyer
NbCN 5860 1.54 Meyer
NbCN 6770 2.26 Ashby
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 9
Notes:
- aAmBn is equal to one if the precipitate is pure.
- aAmBn 1 if there is co-precipitation with another element.
- The product [M]m[X]n (that is, ks) defines the graphical boundary of solubilization in a graph [M] x [X].
Sources:
- ASHBY, M.F. & EASTERLING, K.E. A First Report on Diagrams for Grain Growth in Welds. Acta Metallurgica,
30, 1982, 1969-1978.
- FOUNTAIN, R. & CHIPMAN, J. Solubility and Precipitation of Vanadium Nitride in Alpha and Gamma Iron.
Transactions of the AIME, Dec. 1958, 737-739
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 10
- GLADMAN, T. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels. The Institute of Materials, London, 1997, 363 p.
- IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 205:2, Feb. 1967,
161-182.
- NARITA, K.et al. Physical Chemistry of Ti/Zr, V/Nb/Ta and Rare Elements in Steel. Transactions of the ISIJ,
15:5, May 1975, 145-151.
- Values compiled by Rajindra Clement Ratnapuli or Fúlvio Siciliano from assorted references when not
specified above.
. Irvine
12 6770
log[ Nb] C N 2.26
14 T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 205:2, Feb. 1967,
161-182.
. Mori
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 11
10400
log [ Nb] [ N ]0.65 [C ]0.24 4.09
T
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
. Siciliano
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: SICILIANO JR., F..: Mathematical Modeling of the Hot Strip Rolling of Nb Microalloyed Steels. Ph.D. Thesis,
McGill University, February 1999, 165 p.
. Dong
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 12
Source: DONG, J.X. et al.: Effect of Silicon on the Kinetics of Nb(C,N) Precipitation during the Hot Working of Nb-bearing
Steels. ISIJ International, 40:6, June 2000, 613-618.
. Irvine
Notation:
T: Temperature [K]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: ASHBY, M.F. & EASTERLING, K.E. A First Report on Diagrams for Grain Growth in Welds. Acta Metallurgica,
30, 1982, 1969-1978.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 13
A
Td ( 0 C ) 273
B log 10 (a A ) m (a B ) n
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate considered for calculation
Td: Solubilization temperature [°C]
ax: Alloy content [weight %]
A, B: Constants of the solubility product, given in the table at the topic Austenite Solubilization Products.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 14
. Blás
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
v: Cooling Rate [°C/s]
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling
experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
- Useful range: 0.024-0.068% C, 0.27-0.39% Mn, 0.004-0.054% Al, 0.000-0.094% Nb, 0.0019-0.0072% N, 1.0-
35°C/s
- r = 0.934; Standard Error of Deviation = 5°C
Source: BLÁS, J.G. et al.: Influência da Composição Química e da Velocidade de Resfriamento sobre o Ponto Ar3 em Aços
de Baixo C Microligados ao Nb. In: Congresso Anual da Associação Brasileira de Metais, ABM, São Paulo,
Out. 1989, vol. 1, p 11-29.
. Choquet
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 15
Notes:
- This formula was determined using data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling experiments. Thus it
includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
Source: CHOQUET, P. et al.: Mathematical Model for Predictions of Austenite and Ferrite Microstructures in Hot Rolling
Processes. IRSID Report, St. Germain-en-Laye, 1985. 7 p.
. Ouchi
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
h: Plate Thickness [mm]
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples of Nb microalloyed steels cooled directly
from hot rolling experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
Source: OUCHI, C. et al. The Effect of Hot Rolling Condition and Chemical Composition on the Onset Temperature of
Gamma-Alpha Transformation After Hot Rolling. Transactions of the ISIJ, March 1982, 214-222.
. Sekine
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 16
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling
experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
. Shiga
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- This formula was determined using temperature data got from samples cooled directly from hot rolling
experiments. Thus it includes the effects of hot forming over austenite decomposition.
Source: SHIGA, C. et al.: Development of Large Diameter High Strength Line Pipes for Low Temperature Use. Kawasaki
Steel Technical Report, Dec. 1981, 97-109.
. Pickering
Notation:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 17
Notes:
- Applicable to Plain C Steels.
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: Steels: Metallurgical Principles. In: Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering,
vol. 6, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1986.
. Unknown #1
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
. Unknown #2
Notation:
Ar3: Start Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- It is unknown the previous conditioning of the steel samples that supplied data for the deduction of this
formula.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 18
Source: Unknown.
. Unknown #1
Notation:
Ar1: Final Temperature of the Transformation Austenite Ferrite [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- It is unknown the previous conditioning of the steel samples that supplied data for the deduction of this
formula.
- Samples cooled at 20°C/s.
Source: Unknown.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 19
. Bodnar
Bs 844 597 C 63 Mn 16 Ni 78 Cr
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°F]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: ZHAO, Z. et al. A New Empirical Formula for the Bainite Upper Temperature Limit of Steel. Journal Materials
Science, 36, 2001, 5045-5056.
. Kirkaldy
Bs 656 58 C 35 Mn 75 Si 15 Ni 34 Cr 41 Mo
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°F]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: KIRKALDY, J.S. et al. Prediction of Microstructure and Hardenability in Low Alloy Steels. In: Phase
Transformations in Ferrous Alloys, AIME, Warrendale, 1983, 125-148.
. Lee
Notation:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 20
Notes:
- Formula specifically developed for TRIP steels.
Source: LEE, J.K. et al. Prediction of Tensile Deformation Behaviour of Formable Hot Rolled Steels. Posco Technical
Research Laboratories Report, Pohang, 1999.
. Suehiro
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°F]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: SUEHIRO, M. et al. Kinetic Model for Phase Transformation of Low C Steel during Continuous Cooling. Tetsu-to-
Hagané, 73, 1987, 1026-1033.
Bs 830 270 C 90 Mn 37 Ni 70 Cr 83 Mo
B50 Bs 50
B100 Bs 120
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 21
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [% em peso]
Bx: Temperature Required for the Formation of x% of Bainite [°C]
Source: STEVEN, W. & HAYNES, A.G. The Temperature of Formation of Martensite and Bainite in Low Alloy Steels.
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 183, 1956, 349-359.
. Zhao
Bs 720 585.63 C 126.60 C 2 91.68 Mn 7.82 Mn² 0.3378 Mn³ 66.34 Ni 6.06 Ni ² 0.232 Ni ³ 31.66 Cr 2.17 Cr ²
42.37 Mo 9.16 Co 0.1255 Co² 0.000284 Co³ 36.02 Cu 46.15 Ru
Notes:
- 1992 Version.
Bs 630 45 Mn 40 V 35 Si 30 Cr 25 Mo 20 Ni 15 W
Notes:
- 2002 Version.
Notation:
Bs: Start Temperature of the Bainitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [% em peso]
Source: ZHAO, Z. et al. A New Empirical Formula for the Bainite Upper Temperature Limit of Steel. Journal Materials
Science, 36, 2001, 5045-5056.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 22
. Andrews
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Formula valid for low alloy steels with less than 0.6%C, 4.9% Mn, 5.0% Cr, 5.0% Ni and 5.4% Mo.
Source: ANDREWS, K.W. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of Some Transformation Temperatures. Journal of the
Iron and Steel Institute, 203, Part 7, July 1965, 721-727.
. Carapella
M s 496 (1 0.62 C ) (1 0.092 Mn) (1 0.033 Si) (1 0.045 Ni ) (1 0.07 Cr ) (1 0.029 Mo) (1 0.018 W ) (1 0.012 Co)
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
. Eldis
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 23
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Equation valid for steels with chemical composition between the following limits: 0.1~0.8% C; 0.35~1.80% Mn;
<1.50% Si; <0.90% Mo; <1.50% Cr; <4.50% Ni .
Source: BARRALIS, J. & MAEDER, G. Métallurgie Tome I: Métallurgie Physique. Collection Scientifique ENSAM,
1982, 270 p.
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: GRANGE, R.A. & STEWART, H.M. Transactions of the AIME, 167, 1946, 467.
. Krauss
M s 561 474 C 33 Mn 17 Cr 17 Ni 21 Mo
Notation:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 24
Source: KRAUSS, G. Principles of Heat Treatment and Processing of Steels, ASM International, 1990, p. 43-87.
. Nehrenberg
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: PAYSON, P. & SAVAGE, C.H. Transactions A.S.M., 33, 1944, 261.
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [% em peso]
M s 561 474 C 33 Mn 17 Cr 17 Ni 21 Mo
M10 Ms 18
M50 Ms 85
M 90 Ms 185
M100 Ms 387
Notation:
Mx: Temperature Required for the Formation of x% of Martensite [°F]
Source: STEVEN, W. & HAYNES, A.G. The Temperature of Formation of Martensite and Bainite in Low Alloy Steels.
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 183, 1956, 349-359.
. Sverdlin-Ness
Notation:
Ms: Start Temperature of the Martensitic Transformation [°C]
Alloy Amount: [weight %]
Source: SVERDLIN, A.V. & NESS, A.R. The Effects of Alloying Elements on the Heat Treatment of Steel. In: Steel Heat
Treatment Handbook, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, p. 45-91.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 27
Mn Mo Cr Si Ni
Di 6 exp 7.1 C
5.87 3.13 6.28 18 15
Notation:
Di: Critical Diameter [mm]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: A Guide to the Selection and Welding of Low Alloy Structural Steels. Transactions
of the Institute of Welding, 3, Oct. 1940, 203-214.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 28
. Austenitic Steels
1
(1.231 Fe 3.178 C sol 1.307 Mn 2.436 Si 1.431 Cr 1.205 Cu 1.018 Mo 1.137 Ni 1.890 Ti 1.111 Co 2.186 N 2.032 TiC ) . 10 6
Notation:
: Austenite Density [kg/m³]
Alloy/TiC Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Csol is the content of this element not bound in TiC.
- Density calculated at 20°C.
Source: BOHNENKAMP, U. et al.: Evaluation of the Density of Steels. Steel Research, 71:3, March 2000, 88-93.
. Ferritic Steels
1
(1.270 Fe 1.380 C 1.524 Mn 2.381 Si 1.384 Cr 0.8477 Cu 1.076 Mo 1.370 Ni 2.012 V 4.046 S ) . 10 6
Notation:
: Steel Density [kg/m³]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- C is considered insoluble in ferrite (that is, all C has gone to cementite).
- The solubilities of the other alloy elements in cementite are zero.
- Density calculated at 20°C.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 29
Source: BOHNENKAMP, U. et al.: Evaluation of the Density of Steels. Steel Research, 71:3, March 2000, 88-93.
. Liquid Iron
T 0.7
1
Liquid Iron 1.9946 0.22457 9340
Notation:
Liquid Iron: Liquid Iron Density [g/ml]
T: Absolute Temperature, [K]
Source: YAWS, C.L.: Liquid Density of the Elements. Chemical Engineering, November 2007, 44-46.
. Temperature Effect
Notation:
T: Ferrite Density at Temperature T [kg/m³]
20°C: Ferrite Density at 20°C [kg/m³]
T: Austenite Density at Temperature T [kg/m³]
20°C: Austenite Density at 20°C [kg/m³]
T: Temperature[°C]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 30
Source: FINK, K. et al.: Physikalische Eigenschaften von Stählen, insbesondere von warmfesten Stählen.
Thyssenforschung, 2:2, 1970, 65-80.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 31
Notation:
C: Carbon Content [weight %]
Source: THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
Notes:
- Data based on room temperature lattice parameters.
Source: GLADMAN, T. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels. The Institute of Materials, London, 1997, 363 p.
Notes:
- Data based on room temperature lattice parameters.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 33
Sources:
- SAN MARTIN, D. et al. Estudio y Modelización de la Influencia de las Partículas de Segunda Fase sobre el
Crecimiento de Grano Austenítico en um Acero Microaleado com Niobio. Revista de Metalurgia – Madrid, 42:2,
Marzo-Abril 2006, 128-137.
- ADRIAN, H. Thermodynamical Model for Precipitation of Carbonitrides in HSLA Steels Containing Up to Three
Microalloying Elements with or without Additions of Aluminum. Materials Science and Tecnology, 8:5, May
1992, 406-420.
VM 6.688726 10 6 exp 7.3097 10 5 T
Notation:
VM: Molar Volume of Austenite, [m³/mol]
T: Temperature [K]
. During Cooling
L
1.232 10 2 1.347 10 5 T 6.544 10 3 C 5.829 10 3 C 2 9.766 10 6 C T 2.379 10 9 T 2
L
C 0 (1 X A ) C tr
C
XA
Notation:
ΔLγ→α: Specimen Length Change During Austenite Transformation [μm];
L: Specimen Original Length [μm]
T: Temperature [°C]
Cγ: Carbon Content in Austenite [wt %]
C0: Initial Carbon Content [wt %]
Ctr: Carbon Content of Transformed Phases [wt %]
XA: Untransformed Austenite Volume Fraction
Source: PARK, S.H. Microstructural Evolution of Hot Rolled TRIP Steels During Cooling Control. In: 40th Mechanical
Working and Steel Processing Conference, ISS/AIME, Pittsburgh, October 1998, 283-291.
Transformation V l
[%] [mm/mm]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 35
Notation:
- C: Carbon Content [weight %].
Sources:
- THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
- KRAUSS, G. Steel: Processing, Structure and Performance. ASM International, Metals Park, 2005, 420 p.
. After Quenching
V 100 VC V A V
1.68 C M A (4.64 2.21 C A )
V 100 100
Notation:
- V/V: Volumetric Change after Quenching [%]
- VC: Non-solubilized Cementite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- VA: Austenite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- 100 – VC – VA: Martensite Volumetric Fraction [%]
- CM: Carbon Content Solubilized in Martensite [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 36
Source: THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 37
Mn Mo Cr V Cu Ni P
C EQ _ Dearden C
6 4 5 13 15 2
Notation:
CEQ_Dearden: Equivalent Carbon (Dearden) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: A Guide to the Selection and Welding of Low Alloy Structural Steels. Transactions
of the Institute of Welding, 3, Oct. 1940, 203-214.
Mn Cr MoV Cu Ni
C EQ _ IIW C
6 5 15
Notation:
CEQ_IIW: Equivalent Carbon (IIW) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: HEISTERKAMP, F. et al.: Metallurgical Concept And Full-Scale Testing of High Toughness, H2S Resistant
0.03%C - 0.10%Nb Steel. C.B.M.M. Report, São Paulo, February 1993.
. Bastien
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 38
Mn Mo Cr Ni
C EQ _ Bastien C
4,4 7,7 15,4 10,3
Notation:
CEQ_Bastien: Equivalent Carbon (Bastien) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
CRm: Critical Cooling Rate at 700°C [°C/s], that is, minimum cooling rate that produces a fully martensitic
structure)
Source: BASTIEN, P.G.: Met. Constr. British Weld. J., 49, 1970, 9.
. Yurioka et al.
Mn Mo Cr Ni Si Cu
C EQ _ Yurioka C
6 4 8 12 24 15
Notation:
CEQ_Yurioka: Equivalent Carbon (Yurioka) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
tm: Critical Cooling Time from 800 to 500°C [s] (that is, maximum cooling time that produces a fully martensitic
structure)
. Kihara et al.
Mn Mo Cr V Ni Si
C EQ _ Kihara C
6 4 5 14 40 24
Notation:
CEQ_Kihara: Equivalent Carbon (Kihara) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
. Shinozaki et al.
Mn Si Cr V (50 C 1) Mo (1 6 C )
C EQ _ FBW C 7 Nb (1 10C ) 1.3 Ti (1 5 C ) 29 B (11 C 1)
5 15 9 3 2
Notation:
CEQ_FBW: Equivalent Carbon Designed Specifically for Flash Butt Welding [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: SHINOZAKI, M. et al.: Effects of Chemical Composition and Structure of Hot Rolled High Strength Steel Sheets on
the Formability of Flash Butt Welded Joints. Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, 6, Sept. 1982, 21-30.
. Stout et al.
Mn Cr Mo Ni Cu
C EQ _ Stout 1000 C
6 10 20 40
Notation:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 40
Source: STOUT, R.D. et al. Welding Journal Research Supplement, 55, 1976, 89s-94s.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 41
. DNV
Mn Si Ni Cu Cr V Mo
C EQ _ DNV C
10 24 40 5 10 4
Notation:
CEQ_DNV: Equivalent Carbon (DNV) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: HANNERZ, N.E.: The Influence of Si on the Weldability of Mild and High Tensile Structural Steels. IIW
Document IX-1169-80, 1980.
Mn Cu Ni Cr Mo
C EQ _ Uwer C
10 20 40 20 10
Notation:
CEQ_Uwer: Equivalent Carbon (Uwer & Hohne) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: UWER, D. & HOHNE, H.: Determination of Suitable Minimum Preheating Temperature for the Cold-Crack-Free
Welding of Steels. IIW Document IX-1631-91, 1991.
. Mannesmann
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 42
Si MnCu Cr Ni Mo V
C EQ _ PLS C
25 16 20 60 40 15
Notation:
CEQ_PLS: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels
- A version of this formula divides V by 10
Sources:
- DUREN, C. & NIEDEROFF, K.: In: Proc. on Welding and Performance of Pipeline, TWI, London, 1986.
- HEISTERKAMP, F. et al.: Metallurgical Concept And Full-Scale Testing of High Toughness, H2S Resistant
0.03%C - 0.10%Nb Steel. C.B.M.M. Report, São Paulo, February 1993.
. Graville
Mn Ni Cr Mo Nb V
C EQ _ HSLA C
16 50 23 7 5 9
Notation:
CEQ_HSLA: Equivalent Carbon (Uwer & Graville) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 43
Source: GRAVILLE, B.A.: In: Proc. Conf. on Welding of HSLA Structural Steels, ASM, Materials Park, 1976.
Mn Si Cr Mo V Cu Ni
C EQ _ Bersch C
20
Notation:
CEQ_Bersch: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels
Source:
- BERSCH, B. et al. Weldability of Pipe Steels for Low Operating Temperatures. 3R International, 1, 1977.
- PATCHETT, B.M. et al.: Casti Metals Blue Book: Welding Filler Metals. Casti Publishing Corp., Edmonton,
February 1993, 608 p. (CD Edition).
Si Mn Cu Cr Ni Mo V
Pcm C 5B
30 20 60 15 10
Notation:
Pcm: Cracking Parameter [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 44
Notes:
- Formula deduced for pipeline steels with C < 0.15%
- This is the most popular formula for this kind of material.
- Equation valid under the following conditions: 0.07% C 0.22%; 0.40% Mn 1.40%; Si 0.60%; V
0.12%; Cr 1.20%; Ni 1.20%; Cu 0.50%, Mo 0.7%, B 0,005%.
Sources:
- ITO, Y. et al.: Journal of the Japan Welding Society., 37, 1968, 983.
- ITO, Y. & BESSYO, K. Weldability Formula of High Strength Steels Related to Heat-Affected-Zone Cracking. The
Sumitomo Search, 1, 1969, 59-70.
Si Mn Cu Cr Mo V d H
Pc C
30 20 15 10 600 60
Notation:
Pc: Cracking Parameter [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %], except
H: Hydrogen amount in the weld metal, [cm³/100 g]
d: Plate Thickness, [mm]
Source: ITO, Y. & BESSYO, K.: Weldability Formula of High Strength Steels. I.I.W. Document IX-576-68.
. Yurioka
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 45
Mn Si Cr Mo V Cu Ni Nb
C EQ _ Yurioka C A(C ) 5 B
6 24 5 15 20 5
Notation:
CEQ_Yurioka: Equivalent Carbon for Pipeline Steels [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Notes:
- Formula for C-Mn and microalloyed pipeline steels
- This formula combines Carbon Equivalent equations from IIW and Pcm
Sources:
- YURIOKA, N.: Physical Metallurgy of Steel Weldability. ISIJ International, 41:6, June 2001, 566-570.
- PATCHETT, B.M. et al.: Casti Metals Blue Book: Welding Filler Metals. Casti Publishing Corp., Edmonton,
February 1993, 608 p. (CD Edition).
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 46
- Fe-C Diagram
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 47
. General
(a A ) m (a B ) n A
log 10 B
a Am Bn T
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
ax: Alloy Content [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table below:
Precipitate A B Source
AlN 9595 2.65 Kunze & Reichert
BN 13560 4.53 Fountain & Chipman
MnS 8400 2.77 Ivanov
NbC 10990 4.62 Kunze
NbN 10650 3.87 Kunze
TiN 17640 6.17 Kunze
VC 12265 8.05 Taylor
VN 7830 2.45 Froberg
VN 8120 2.48 Roberts & Sandbert
ZrN 18160 5.24 Kunze
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 49
Notes:
- aAmBn is equal to one if the precipitate is pure.
- aAmBn 1 if there is co-precipitation with another element.
Sources:
- FROBERG, M.G. & GRAF, H. Stahl und Eisen, 80, 1960, 539.
- KUNZE, J. Nitrogen and Carbon in Iron and Steels – Thermodynamics. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, 1991, p.
192.
- FOUNTAIN, R.W. & CHIPMAN, J. In: Transactions of the Metallurgical Society of AIME, 224, 1964, 599.
- ROBERTS, W. & SANDBERG, A. Report IM 1489. Institute for Metallurgical Research, Stockholm, 1990.
. Lorenz et al.
Si Mn Cu Cr Ni Mo V
HV 2019 C (1 0.5 log t 8 / 5 ) 0.3 66 (1 0.8 log t 8 / 5 )
11 8 9 5 17 6 3
Source: LORENZ, K. et al.: Evaluation of Large Diameter Pipe Steel Weldability by Means of the Carbon Equivalent. In:
International Conference on Steels for Linepipe and Fittings, Metals Society, London, Oct. 1981, 322-332.
Notation:
HV: Maximum Hardness for a Martensitic-Bainitic HAZ Microstructure [Vickers, 10 kg Load]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
t8/5: Cooling Time Between 800°C and 500°C [s]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 51
. Spies
Notation:
HB: Brinell Hardness After Hardening and Tempering
HRC: Rockwell Hardness (C Scale) After Hardening
Alloy Content: [weight %]
T: Tempering Temperature [°C]
Notes:
- This equation is valid within the following ranges: HRC: 20~65; C: 0.20~0.54%; Mn: 0.50~1,90%; Si:
0.17~1.40%; Cr: 0.03~1.20%; T: 500~650°C.
Source: SPIES, H.J. et al.: Möglichkeiten der Optimierung der Auswahl vergütbarer Baustähle durch
Berechnung der Härt-und-vergütbarkeit. Neue Hütte, 8:22, 1977, 443-445.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 52
Mn Mo Cr V Cu Ni P
C EQ _ Dearden C
6 4 5 13 15 2
Notation:
CEQ_Dearden: Equivalent Carbon (Dearden) [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
HVmax = Maximum Hardness [Vickers]
Notes:
- This equation calculates maximum hardness after welding.
Source: DEARDEN, J & O’NEIL, H.: Trans. Int. Weld., 3, 1940, 203.
. Shinozaki et al.
HV 78 331 C EQ _ FBW
Mn Si Cr V (50 C 1) Mo (1 6 C )
C EQ _ FBW C 7 Nb (1 10C ) 1.3 Ti (1 5 C ) 29 B (11 C 1)
5 15 9 3 2
Notation:
CEQ_FBW: Equivalent Carbon Designed Specifically for Flash Butt Welding [%]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 53
Source: SHINOZAKI, M. et al.: Effects of Chemical Composition and Structure of Hot Rolled High Strength Steel Sheets on
the Formability of Flash Butt Welded Joints. Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, 6, Sept. 1982, 21-30.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 54
Source: ASM Handbook – Mechanical Testing and Evaluation. ASM International, vol. 8, Metals Park, 2000, 275.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 56
. Misaka
exp 0.126 1.75 C 0.594 C 2
2851 2968 C 1120 C
2
0 , 21 d
0 ,13
T dt
Notation:
: Steel Hot Strength [kgf/mm²]
C: C content [weight %]
T: Absolute Temperature [K]
: True Strain
t: Time [s]
Source: MISAKA, Y. et al. Formulatization of Mean Resistance to Deformation of Plain C Steels at Elevated Temperature.
Journal of the Japan Society for the Technology of Plasticity, 8, 79, 1967-1968, 414-422.
. Shida
g=1
Tx = T
mShida = (-0.019 * C + 0.126) * T + (0.075 * C – 0.05)
Else
g = 30 * (C + 0.9) * (T – 0.95 * (C + 0.49) / (C + 0.42)) ^ 2 + (C + 0.06) / (C + 0.09)
Tx = Td
mShida = (0.081 * C – 0.154) * T + (-0.019 * C + 0.207) + 0.027 / (C + 0.32)
End If
SigF = 0.28 * g * Exp(5 / Tx – 0.01 / (C + 0.05))
Shida = 2 / Sqr(3) * SigF * (1.3 * (Def / 0.2) ^ nShida – 0.3 * (Def / 0.2)) * _
(VelDef / 10) ^ mShida
End Function
Notation:
: Steel Hot Strength [kgf/mm²]
C: C content [weight %]
T: Temperature [°C]
Def: True Strain
VelDef: Strain Rate [s-1]
Source: SHIDA, S. Empirical Formula of Flow Stress of C Steels - Resistance to Deformation of C Steels at Elevated
Temperature. Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity, 10:103, 1969, 610-7.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 58
- Lattice Parameters
. Ferrite
Notation:
aα: Ferrite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
Notes:
- 800 K < T < 1200 K
. Austenite
Notation:
aγ: Austenite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
ξ: C [Atomic Fraction]
Notes:
- 1000 K < T < 1250 K
- 0.0005 < ξ < 0.0365
Notation:
aγ: Austenite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
Alloy Content: [Weight Percent]
Notes:
- Formula valid for ambient temperature.
. Cementite
Notation:
aθ, bθ, cθ: Cementite Lattice Parameter [Ǻ]
T: Temperature [K]
Notes:
- 300 K < T < 1000 K
Source: CABALLERO, F.G. et al. Modelling of Kinetics and Dilatometric Behaviour of Austenite Formation in a Low-
carbon Steel with a Ferrite Plus Pearlite Inicial Microstructure. Journal of Materials Science, 37, 2002, 3533-
3540.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 60
. General
(a A ) m (a B ) n A
log B
a Am Bn T
Notation:
AmBn: Precipitate Considered for Calculation
ax: Alloy Content [weight %]
T: Temperature [K]
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table below:
Precipitate A B
MnS 8236 5.03
TiN 16586 5.90
TiS 8000 4.00
ZrN 17000 6.38
Notes:
- aAmBn is equal to one if the precipitate is pure.
- aAmBn 1 if there is co-precipitation with another element.
Notation:
TLíq: Steel Melting Temperature [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: GUTHMANN, K. Günstige Giesstemperatur im Vergleich zum Erstarrungspunkt von Eisen- und Stahlschmelzen.
Stahl und Eisen, 71(1951), 8, 399-402.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 62
- Poisson Ratio
. Definition
: Poisson Ratio
. Elastic Range: 0.3
. Plastic Range: 0.5
Source: WILSON, A.D. Guidelines for Fabricating and Processing Plate Steel. Bethlehem-Lukens Plate Report, Burns
Harbor, 2000, 97 p.
. Fletcher
Temperature
[°C]
600 0.327
700 0.335
800 0.344
900 0.352
1000 0.360
Source: PICQUÉ, B. Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation of Iron Oxide Scales Behavior in Hot Rolling. Doctor
Thesis, École de Mines de Paris, 2004, p. 243.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 63
r02
t
2c D
Notation:
AmBn: Spheric precipitate considered for calculation
t: Time for solubilization of the precipitate [s]
r0: Radius of the precipitate [m], [cm] or [mm]
Ci C m Ci
c
C p Ci C p
A
B
10 T
Ci
aB
T: Temperature [K]
A, B: Constants of the Solubility Product, given in the table at the topic Austenite Solubilization Products.
aB: Alloy content [weight percent]
Cp: Solute content in the precipitate [%]
m MA
Cp
m MA n MB
Cm: Solute content in a position far away from the precipitate [%]
D: Solute Diffusion Coefficient [m²/s, cm²/s or mm²/s], calculated according to the general equation below:
Q
D D0 exp
RT
D0: Constant
Q: Activation Energy for Diffusion [J] or [cal]
R: Universal Gas Constant, 8.314 J/mol.K (R’) or 1.981 cal/mol.K (R)
Sources:
- ANDERSEN, I. & GRONG, O. Analytical Modelling of Grain Growth in Metals and Alloys in the Presence of
Growing and Dissolving Precipitates – I. Normal Grain Growth. Acta Metallurgica and Materialia, 43:7, 1995,
2673-2688.
- GLADMAN, T. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels. The Institute of Materials, London, 1997, 363 p.
- BORGGREN, U. e al. A Model for Particle Dissolution and Precipitation in HSLA Steels. Advanced Materials
Research, 15-17, 2007, 714-719.
TSol 1536 415,5 C 12,3 Si 6,8 Mn 124,5 P 183,9 S 4,3 Ni 1,4 Cr 4,1 Al
Notation:
TSol: Steel Solidus Temperature [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: TAKEUCHI, E. & BRIMACOMBE, J.K. Effect of Oscillation-Mark Formation on the Surface Quality of
Continuously Cast Steel Slabs. Metallurgical Transactions B, 16B, 9, 1985, 605-25.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 68
17.4
YS 53.9 32.3 Mn 83.2 Si 354.2 N sol
d
7.7
TS 294.1 27.7 Mn 83.2 Si 2.85 Pearl
d
d 15.4
370 120 C 23.1 Mn 116 Si 554 P 143 Sn 1509 N sol
d d
0.017
tot 1.40 2.90 C 0.20 Mn 0.16 Si 2.2 S 3.9 P 0.25 Sn
d
11.5
50% ITT 19 44 Si 700 N sol 2.2 Pearl
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
d/d: Strain Hardening Coefficient at 0.2% Real Strain [1/MPa]
unif: Uniform Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 69
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels. Allied Science Publishers, London, 1978,
275 p.
d 11.5 2.2 (6 C Mn 30 P 35 S 23 Al 0.01 (723 Tcoil ) 0.01 etot 0.002 T fin 100 N sol )
Ceq 0.06
Pearl 100
0.78
0.1
S0
723 Tcoil
0.12
100 (0.000096 Pearl S 0 0.05 Mn 4.23 P 4.36 S 2.37 Sn 1.16 N sol 0.0006 T fin )
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
: Total Elongation [%]
d: Ferrite Grain Size [m]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Tcoil: Coiling Temperature [°C]
etot: Total Hot Rolling Conventional Strain [%]
Tfin: Finishing Temperature [°C]
Nsol: Solubilized (Free) Nitrogen [%]
Pearl: Pearlite Fraction Present in Microstructure [%]
S0: Pearlite Lamelar Spacing [mm]
Mn Si
Ceq C S
6 24
T fin Tcoil
T fin
Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: Slab Reheating Temperature: 1250°C; Tfin:
850~880°C; Tcoil: 615~650°C; Final Thickness: 1.8~4.0 mm; C: 0.08~0.18%; Mn: 0.40~1.00%; P < 0.020%; S
< 0.020%; Si < 0.030%; Al: 0.020~0.050%; N: 0.0030~0.0090%.
2.72
YS 3.37 YS 28.16 154 d HR
d CR
0.01
n 0.33
d CR
Notation:
dCR: Grain Size of Cold Rolled Strip [mm]
dHR: Grain Size of Hot Rolled Strip [mm]
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
yield: Yield Elongation [%]
n: Strain Hardening Coefficient Measured during Tension Test
Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: C: 0.005~0,10%; Mn: 0.40%; P < 0.016%; S <
0.026%; Si < 0.010%; Al: < 0.040%; N: 0.0020~0.0040%.
- Cold rolled steel was box annealed at 700°C; the time of treatment, including heating of the samples, was
equal to 32 hours, being followed by furnace cooling.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 72
Source: LANGENSCHEID, G. et al.: Untersuchungen über den Einflu der Korngröe des Warmbandes auf die
Kaltbandeigenschaften. Hoesch Berichte aus Forschung und Entwicklung unserer Werke, 2, 1971, 64-70.
5
n
1
10
d
Notation:
n: Strain Hardening Coefficient Measured during Tension Test
d: Grain Size [mm]
Source: MORRISON, W.: The Effect of Grain Size on the Stress-Strain-Relationship in Low-Carbon Steel. Transactions
of the ASM, 59, 1966, 824-845.
14.9
YS 246 4.15 Pearl 44.6 Mn 138 Si 923 P 169 Sn 3754 N sol
d
44.6
TS 492 3.38 Pearl 246 Mn 277 Si 2616 S 723 P 246 Cr 6616 N sol
d
d 15.4
385 1.39 Pearl 111 Si 462 P 152 Sn 1369 N sol
d d
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 73
0.015
tot 1,30 0.020 Pearl 0.30 Mn 0.20 Si 3.4 S 4.4 P 0.29 Sn
d
6.2
Ttrans 43 1.5 Pearl 37 Mn
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
d/d: Strain Hardening Coefficient at 0.2% Real Strain [1/MPa]
unif: Uniform Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
tot: Total Elongation, Expressed as Real (Logarithmic) Strain
Pearl: Pearlite Fraction in Microstructure [%]
Ttrans: Fracture Appearance Transition Temperature [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
d: Grain Size [mm]
Source: PICKERING, F.B.: The Effect of Composition and Microstructure on Ductility and Toughness; in: Towards
Improved Ductility and Toughness, Climax Molybdenum Company, Tokyo, 1971, p. 9-32
15.1
YS 0 37 Mn 83 Si 2918 N sol ppt
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 74
Notes:
- The Friction Stress 0 value depends on the previous treatment of the material and can be found in the table
below:
Condition 0
[MPa]
Mean 70
Air Cooled 88
Overaged 62
- The effect of solid solution strengthening from another alloy elements solubilized in ferrite can be included in
this equation, using the following linear coefficients:
Element MPa/weight %
Ni 33
Cr -30
P 680
Cu 38
Mo 11
Sn 120
C 5000
N 5000
5.9 f x
ppt ln
4
x 2.5 10
Notation:
ppt: Precipitation Strengthening According to the Ashby-Orowan Model [MPa]
f: Volume Fraction of the Precipitate
x: Mean Planar Intercept Diameter of the Precipitate [m]
Notes:
- Relationship adequate for the calculation of the precipitation strengthening of quench-aged carbides and
precipitate carbonitrides in Nb, V and Ti steels.
- ppt can be calculated using a more simplified approach, multiplying the total content of the precipitating
alloy by the factor B shown in the table below:
Source: PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
Microstructures. TISCO. Silver Jubilee Volume, Jan-Oct 1980, 105-132.
19.7
YS 62.6 26.1 Mn 60.2 Si 759.0 P 212.9 Cu 3286.0 N sol ppt
d
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 76
11.0
TS 164.9 634.7 C 53.6 Mn 99.7 Si 651.9 P 472.6 Ni 3339.4 N sol ppt
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
d: Grain Size [mm]
ppt: Precipitation Strengthening [MPa], only for steels with V [MPa]
CR: Cooling Rate [°C/s]
Source: HODGSON, P.D. & GIBBS, R.K. A Mathematical Model to Predict the Mechanical Properties of Hot Rolled C-Mn
and Microalloyed Steels. ISIJ International, 32:12, December 1992, 1329-1338.
419.5
YS 41,4 575.20 C eq (27401 N ef 2) V
hf
181.5
TS 74.1 985.1 C eq (31125 N ef 39) V
hf
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 77
Mn Cr Mo Ni Cu
Ceq C
6 5 15
Ti
N ef N tot
3.42
Notes:
- Formula Derived for Steels with Al Content over 0.010% and Si Content between 0.25 and 0.35%.
- Precision of the Formulas: 40 MPa.
Source: MITCHELL, P.S. et al.: Effect of Vanadium on Mechanical Properties and Weldability of Structural Steels. In:
Low Carbon Steels for the 90’s. Proceedings. American Society for Metals/The Metallurgical Society,
Pittsburgh, Oct. 1993.
1
YS 203 855
L
1 f
TS 266 548 1741
L d
d 1 f
266 548 1741
d L d
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 78
1
unif 32 64
L
Notation:
LE: Yield Strength [MPa]
LR: Tensile Strength [MPa]
d/d: Strain Hardening Coefficient at Uniform Elongation [1/MPa]
aunif: Uniform Elongation [%]
L: Mean Ferritic Free Path [m]
d: Mean Diameter of Martensite Islands [m]
Sources:
- GORNI, A.A. & BRANCHINI, O.L.G. Análise da Evolução do Encruamento de um Aço Bifásico. In: 4° Simpósio
de Conformação Mecânica, EPUSP/UNICAMP/ABAL, São Paulo, Nov. 1990, 23-42.
- GORNI, A.A. & BRANCHINI, O.L.G. Relações Microestrutura-Propriedades Mecânicas em um Aço Bifásico
Laminado a Quente. In: 1º Seminário sobre Chapas Metálicas para a Indústria Automobilística, ABM/AEA,
São Paulo, Set. 1992, 127-145.
15.1
YS 88 37 Mn 83 Si 2900 N sol disc ppt
dL
11.5
ITT 19 44 Si 700 N sol 0.26 ( disc ppt )
d
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
ITT: Impact Transition Temperature for 50% Tough Fracture [°C]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Nsol: Solubilized (Free) Nitrogen [%]
dL: BainiteFerrite Lath Size [mm]
disc: Strength Due to Dislocations [MPa]
ppt: Precipitation Strengthening According to the Ashby-Orowan Model [MPa]
Nsol: Solubilized (Free) Nitrogen [%]
d: Mean Spacing between High Angle Boundaries (“Packet” or Prior Austenite Grain Boundaries)
5.9 f x
ppt ln
4
x 2.5 10
Notation:
: Empirical Constant
: Shear Modulus [MPa]
b: Burger’s Vector [cm]
: Dislocation Density [lines/cm²]
f: Volume Fraction of the Precipitate
x: Mean Planar Intercept Diameter of the Precipitate [m]
Sources:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 80
- PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
Microstructures. TISCO. Silver Jubilee Volume, Jan-Oct 1980, 105-132.
- KEH, A.S., Work Hardening and Deformation Sub-Structure in Iron Single Crystals in Tension at 298K,
Philosophical Magazine, 12:115, 1965, 9-30.
. Medium C Steels
YS 3 f 35 58 Mn
17.4
1 3
f 178
3.8 63 Si 42 N sol
d S0
TS 3 f 246 1140 N sol
18.2
1 3
f 720
3.5 97 Si
d S0
11.5
1 f 335
5.6 13.3
ITT f 46 3.48 10 6 t 48.7 Si 762 N sol
d S0 p
Notation:
YS: Yield Strength at 0.2% Real Strain [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
ITT: Impact Transition Temperature for 50% Tough Fracture [°C]
f: Volume Fraction of Ferrite
d: Ferrite Grain Size [mm]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Nsol: Solubilized (Free) Nitrogen [%]
S0: Pearlite Lamelar Spacing [mm]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 81
Sources:
- GLADMAN, T. e outros. Some Aspects of the Structure-Property Relationships in High Carbon Ferrite-Pearlite
Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 210, Dec. 1972, 916-930.
- PICKERING, F.B. Some Aspects of the Relationships between the Mechanical Properties of Steels and their
Microstructures. TISCO. Silver Jubilee Volume, Jan-Oct 1980, 105-132.
22.0
YS 34.3 258 P 34.2 Mn 52.8 Si
d
11.2
TS 183 506 P 48.7 Mn 109 Si 48.8 Al 2450 B
d
0.0412
YR 0.424 0.078 Si 0.170 Al
d
Notation:
YS: Lower Yield Strength [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
YR: Yield Ratio
d: Ferrite Grain Size [mm]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 82
Notes:
- These equations are valid under the following conditions: ULC Steel; Mn: 0.075~0.578%; P < 0.109%; S:
0.003~0.004%; Si < 0.34%; Al: < 0.432%; N: 0.0014~0.0020%; B < 0.0030%.
- Cold rolled steel was box annealed at 700°C; the time of treatment, including heating of the samples, was
equal to 32 hours, being followed by furnace cooling.
Source: PINOY, L et al. Influence of Composition and Hot Rolling Parameters on the Magnetic and Mechanical Properties
of Fully Processed Non-Oriented Low-Si Electrical Steels. J. Phys. IV France, 8, 1998, Pr2-487/Pr2-490.
PT 0.658 0.474 Si 2.311 Al 25.99 O 12.51 C 123.7 S init 130.2 S 137.5 N 5.266 h
Notation:
PT: Core Loss [W/kg]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
h: Thickness [mm]
Notes:
- This equation ise valid under the following conditions: C: 0.002~0.040%; S: 0.004~0.015%; N:
0.003~0.007%.
- Negative effects of O and N are in direct contradiction with specific experimental results.
- Adjusted Squared Multiple Correlation: 0.823; Residual Mean Square: 0.082 W²/kg²
h2
PT 4.29 66.4 C 0.0282 GBI 16.2
r
Notation:
PT: Total Core Loss at 15 KG [W/kg]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 83
Source: LYUDKOVSKY, G. et al. Non-Oriented Electrical Steels. Journal of Metals, January 1986, 18-26.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 84
- Schaeffler Diagram
. Ferrite
(T 300)
64000 1 (-273°C < T < 300°C)
2235
(T 300)
64000 1 0.032 (T 573) 2 (300°C T < 700°C)
2235
(T 300)
64000 1 0.032 (T 573) 2 0.024 (T 923) 2 (700°C T < 770°C)
2235
(T 300)
69200 1 (770°C T < 911°C)
1382
. Austenite
(T 300)
81000 1 (911°C T < 1392°C)
1989
. Delta Ferrite
(T 300)
39000 1 (1392°C T < 1537°C)
2514
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 86
Notation:
: Shear Modulus [MPa]
T: Temperature [K]
Source: FROST, H.J. & ASHBY, M.F.: Pure Iron and Ferrous Alloys. In: Deformation-Mechanism Maps, The
Plasticity and Creep of Metals and Ceramics. Pergamon Press, Cambridge, 1982.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 87
. Mesquita
K c 0.88 TS
Fc t P K c
Notation:
Kc: Cutting Specific Pressure or Shear Stress [MPa]
TS: Tensile Strength [MPa]
Fc: Cutting Force [N]
t: Thickness [mm]
P: Cutting Perimeter [mm]
Source: MESQUITA, E.L.A. Conformação dos Aços Inoxidáveis. Manual da Acesita. Dezembro 1997, 39 p.
. Tschaetsch
F W t B
aFt
W
1000
Fv
P
Notation:
F: Cutting Force [N]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 88
W: Width [mm]
t: Thickness [mm]
W: Cutting Work [N.mm]
a: Mean Force/Maximum Force Ratio (≈ 0.6 for shearing)
P: Cutting Power [W]
v: Shear Speed [m/s]
η: Machine Efficiency (≈ 0.7)
τB: Shear Stress [MPa], as defined by the table or formulas below:
Notes:
- The value of τB can be calculated from the following equations, where C is the carbon weight content of steel:
B 223 550 C
B 249 786 C
- These equations were fitted using the τB data available below, expressed in N/mm²:
Source: TSCHAETSCH, H. Shearing. Metal Forming Practice - Processes, Machines, Tools; Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
2006, 218-40.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 90
. Chou
Notation:
k: Conductivity [J/m.°C.s]
T: Temperature [°C]
1.109483 10 9
c 4720.324 4.583364 T (800K < T < 1000K)
T2
5.217657 10 9
c 10068.18 5.98686 T (1060K < T < 1184K)
T2
Notation:
c: Specific Heat Capacity [J/(kg.K)]
T: Temperature [K]
Notation:
ρ: Density [kg/m³]
T: Temperature [°C]
Note:
- Formulas specific for a 0.16% C, 0.5% Mn steel
Source: PICQUÉ, B. Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation of Iron Oxide Scales Behavior in Hot Rolling. Doctor
Thesis, École de Mines de Paris, 2004, p. 247.
. Seredynski
Notation:
k: Conductivity [J/m.°C.s]
T: Temperature [°C]
Notation:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 92
D: Diffusivity [m²/s]
T: Temperature [°C]
T T
0.12491 0.38012 1.0948
1000 1000
Notation:
: Emissivity
T: Temperature [°C]
Note:
- Formulas specific for BS En 3 or SAE 1021 steel: 0.17-0.23% C; 0.60-0.90% Mn
Source: SEREDYNSKI, F.: Performance Analysis and Optimization of the Plate-Rolling Process. In: Mathematical
Process Models in Iron and Steelmaking. Proceedings. Iron and Steel Institute, Amsterdam, 1973.
. Touloukian
0,85
[1 exp( 42.68 0,02682 Tsup ) 0,0115]
Notation:
: Emissivity
Tsup: Superficial Temperature [K]
Source: HARDIN, R.A. et al.: A Transient Simulation and Dynamic Spray Cooling Control Model for Continuous Steel
Casting. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, 34B:6, June 2003, 297-306.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 93
. Krzyzanowski
Notation:
k: Conductivity [W/(m.K)]
T: Temperature [K]
Notation:
c: Specific Heat Capacity [J/(kg.°C)]
T: Temperature [°C]
Source: PICQUÉ, B. Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation of Iron Oxide Scales Behavior in Hot Rolling. Doctor
Thesis, École de Mines de Paris, 2004, p. 247.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 94
Source: Requirements Concerning Materials and Welding. IACS – International Association of Classification
Societies Requirement 1975, Revision 2, 2004, 228 p.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 96
. Anisothermal Austenitizing
In this case the Austenitization Time-Temperature Equivalence Parameter in Terms of Grain Size, Pa, is the period of
heating/cooling time between Tmax and Tmin, where
2
R Tmax
Tmin Tmax
Ha
Notation:
R: Molar Gas Constant, 8.314 JK-1mol-1
Ha: Activation Energy of Austenitic Grain Coarsening, 460 kJmol-1 for low alloy steels
Source: BARRALIS, J. & MAEDER, G. Métallurgie Tome I: Métallurgie Physique. Collection Scientifique ENSAM,
1982, 270 p.
. Isothermal Austenitizing
1
Pa
1 2,3 R
log t a
Ta H a
Notation:
Pa: Austenitization Time-Temperature Equivalence Parameter in Terms of Grain Size [K]
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 97
Source: BARRALIS, J. & MAEDER, G. Métallurgie Tome I: Métallurgie Physique. Collection Scientifique ENSAM,
1982, 270 p.
0.3 l 2
t 0.05 Q
D0 e RT
Notation:
t0.05: Treatment Time Necessary to Achieve 5% Microstructure Banding [min]
l: Mean Spacing between Bands [mm]
Do: Diffusion Constant for the Alloy Element being Considered [cm²/s]:
- P: 0.01 cm²/s
- Mn: 0.16 cm²/s
Q: Activation Energy for the Alloy Element Being Considered [cal/mol]:
- P: 43700 cal/mol
- Mn: 62500 cal/mol
R: Molar Gas Constant, 1.987 JK-1mol-1
T: Austenitization Temperature [K]
Source: YIMING, X. et al.: A Metallographic Investigation of Banding and Diffusion of Phosphorus in Steels.
Microstructural Science, 20, 1993, 457-470.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 98
. Tempering (Hollomon-Jaffe)
P T (c log t )
c 21.53 5.8 C
Notation:
P: Hollomon-Jaffe Parameter [K]
T: Tempering Temperature [K]
c: Constant Characteristic of the Steel Being Tempered
t: Soaking time under T [h]
C: Carbon Content [wt%]
Notes:
- Other values for the constant c were proposed by several authors for carbon, microalloyed and low alloy
steels:
. 18 (Grange & Baughman)
. 20 (Larson & Miller, Irvine et al., Thelning)
- This expression was also deduced by Larson & Miller, which applied it to the study of metal creep. In that case
c is equal to 20 and P is divided by 1000. Such relationship was also used for the study of hydrogen
resistance and HAZ hardness of steels.
Sources:
- HOLLOMON, J.H. & JAFFE, L.D. Time-Temperature Relations in Tempering Steel. Transactions of the AIME,
162, 1945, 223-249.
- LARSON, F.R. & MILLER, J. A Time-Temperature Relationship for Rupture and Creep Stresses. Transactions of
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 74, 1952, 765-775.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 99
- GRANGE, R.A. & BAUGHMAN, R.W. Hardness of Tempered Martensite in Carbon and Low Alloy Steels.
Transactions of the American Society for Metals, 68, 1956, 165-197.
- THELNING, K.E.: Steel and its Heat Treatment – Bofors Handbook. Butterworths, London, 1981, 570 p.
- IRVINE, K.J. et al. Grain-Refined C-Mn Steels. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Feb. 1967, 161-182.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 100
- Welding Effects
2 Mn 2 3 Cr
2
Feq (C 0.03) Si (4 Al )
2
10 2
Notation:
Feq: Weld Interface Cracking Susceptibility during Flash Butt Welding (No Crack = Zero)
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: MIZUI, M. et al.: Application of High-Strength Steel Sheets to Automotive Wheels. Nippon Steel Technical
Report, 23, June 1984, 19-30.
Mn Si Cr V
TS eq 52 C 30
5 7 9 2
Notation:
TSeq: Tensile Strength After Flash Butt Welding [kgf/mm²]
Alloy Content: [weight %]
Source: MIZUI, M. et al.: Application of High-Strength Steel Sheets to Automotive Wheels. Nippon Steel Technical
Report, 23, June 1984, 19-30.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 101
- Young Modulus
. Definition
E 2 G (1 )
Notation:
E: Young Modulus
G: Shear Modulus
: Poisson Ratio
. Elastic Range: 0.3
. Plastic Range: 0.5
Source: WILSON, A.D. Guidelines for Fabricating and Processing Plate Steel. Bethlehem-Lukens Plate Report, Burns
Harbor, 2000, 97 p.
. Pietrzyk
T T
2
T
3
T
4
5
E 2.07 0.87438 10.0906 14.48466 6.20767 10
1000 1000 1000 1000
Notation:
T: Temperature [°C]
Source: PICQUÉ, B. Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation of Iron Oxide Scales Behavior in Hot Rolling. Doctor
Thesis, École de Mines de Paris, 2004, p. 243.
. Tselikov
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 102
Notation:
E: Young Modulus [kgf/cm²]
C: C content [weight %]
Mn: Mn content [weight %]
Si: Si content [weight %]
P: P content [weight %]
S: S content [weight %]
T: Temperature [°C]
Note:
- Valid for carbon, alloy and stainless steels between 20 and 900°C.
Source: ROYZMAN, S.E. Thermal Stresses in Slab Solidification. Asia Steel, 1996, 158-162.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 103
APENDIXES
USEFUL DATA AND CONSTANTS
- Density (Gas)
. Natural Gas: 0.81 kg/Nm³
. Butane: 2.44 kg/Nm³
. Propane: 1.85 kg/Nm³
. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): 2.29 kg/Nm³
. Air: 1.27 kg/Nm³
- Density (Liquid)
. Butane: 0.58 kg/l
. Propane: 0.51 kg/l
. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG): 0.54 kg/Nm³
. Water: 1.00 kg/Nm³
Gas a b
C2H6 0.600 0.000540
C3H8 0.871 0.001226
CH4 0.380 0.000210
CO 0.302 0.000022
CO2 0.406 0.000090
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 104
H2 0.301 0.000200
N2 0.302 0.000022
O2 0.320 0.000059
Mathematical Constants
- e: 2.718281828
- Pi: 3.141592654
Physical Constants
- Thermal Conductivity:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 106
- Densities:
. Bulk Steel: 7850 kg/m³
. Ferrite (Fe ): 7687 kg/m³
. Cementite (Fe3C): 7882 kg/m³
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 107
Sources:
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 108
- ANON.: Practical Data for Metallurgists. The Timken Company, Canton, September 2006, 130 p.
- CABALLERO, F.G. et al. Modelling of Kinetics and Dilatometric Behaviour of Austenite Formation in a Low-
carbon Steel with a Ferrite Plus Pearlite Inicial Microstructure. Journal of Materials Science, 37, 2002, 3533-
3540.
- HEIDEMANN, M. Fours Pits - Établissement de Bilans Thermiques Globaux et Étages dans les Temps. Rapport
IRSID 77-02, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Juillet 1976, 15 p.
- METNUS, G.E. et al. Comparing CO2 Emissions and Energy Demands for Alternative Ironmaking Routes. Steel
Times International, March 2006, 32-36.
- PICQUÉ, B. Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation of Iron Oxide Scales Behavior in Hot Rolling. Doctor
Thesis, École de Mines de Paris, 2004, p. 248.
- WILSON, A.D. Guidelines for Fabricating and Processing Plate Steel. Bethlehem-Lukens Plate Report, Burns
Harbor, 2000, 97 p.
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 109
UNIT CONVERSIONS
From Multiply by To From Multiply by To
A 10-10 m J 2.389 x 10-7 th
bar 1.019716 kg/cm² kg 2.205 lb
BTU 1058.201058 J kgf 9.80665 N
BTU 251,9958 cal kgf.m 9.80665 J
cal 4.184 J kgf/mm² 9.80665 MPa
F 5/9 (°F-32) °C kN 224.8 lbf
ft 12 inch kN/mm 5.71 x 103 lbf/ft
ft 0.30485126 m ksi 6.894757 MPa
ft.lb 1.356 J ou N.m ksi 1000 psi
ft.lb 0.324 cal ksi.√in 1.098901099 MPa.√m
ft.lb 1.355748373 J kW 1.341022 HP
ft.lb/s 1.355380862 W kW 0.860 th/h
ft.lbf 1.355818 J ou N.m lb 0.4535924 kg
ft.lbf 0.1382 kg lb.in 0.1129815 J ou N.m
ft² 92.90 x 10-3 m² lb/ft³ 0.016020506 g/cm³
ft³ 0.02831685 m³ lb/in³ 27.67783006 g/cm³
Gallon 3.78541178 liters lbf 4.448222 N
HP 0.7456999 kW lbf/in² 1 psi
HP 745,7121551 W long ton 1016.047 kg
in 25.4 mm M 1010 A
in² 645.2 mm² m 3.281 ft
in³ 16387.064 mm³ m² 10.76 ft²
inch 25.4 mm MBTU 1,000,000 BTU
J 9.45 x 10-4 BTU mm 0.0394 in
J 0.2390 cal mm² 1.550 x 10³ in²
J 0.7376 ft.lb
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 110
- Correlation Coefficient
_
(Yest Y ) 2
r _
(Y Y ) 2
Notation:
r: Correlation Coefficient
Y: Raw Data
Yest: Estimated Data Calculated by the Fitted Equation
_
Y : Mean of the Raw Data
Source: SPIEGEL, M.R. Estatística, Editora McGraw-Hill do Brasil Ltda., São Paulo, 1976, 580 p.
_
(Yest Y ) 2
n
Notation:
: Standard Error of Estimation
Yest: Estimated Data Calculated by the Fitted Equation
_
Y : Mean of the Raw Data
Gorni Steel Forming and Heat Treating Handbook 112
Source: SPIEGEL, M.R. Estatística, Editora McGraw-Hill do Brasil Ltda., São Paulo, 1976, 580 p.