Pharmacognosy deals with plants and animals that yield drug substances, their properties, methods of harvesting crude drugs, processing and storing them, and extracting active constituents. It also involves identifying crude drugs, their biological and geographical sources, cultivation, collection, preparation methods, constituents, and medicinal uses. A pharmacognosist is responsible for identifying drug sources, determining morphological characters, investigating purity and constituents, and ensuring proper cultivation and collection methods. Crude drugs include entire or parts of plants, animals, minerals, and substances derived from them. Their production involves cultivation, collection, drying, packing, and preservation.
This document provides an introduction to the subject of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of crude drugs from plant, animal, and marine sources. The document outlines the history and development of pharmacognosy over time with contributions from scientists since ancient times. It describes the scope of pharmacognosy, including understanding drug actions, formulating products, isolating phytochemicals, and more. The types of crude drugs are categorized as organized (containing tissues) or unorganized. Sources of crude drugs are discussed, including various plant parts, animals, marine organisms, and tissue culture techniques.
This document describes microscopic evaluation methods used to identify crude drugs on a cellular level. Transverse microscopy and powdered microscopy are used to examine histological characters like cell size, shape, and position. Identification of small fragments or detection of adulterants can be aided by microscopic evaluation. Methods like free hand mounting, glide mounting, cryology mounting, and paraffin mounting are used to prepare slides for examination of features like starch grains, fibers, and stomata size. Staining techniques using reagents like safranin and fast green are also described. Leaf constants such as stomatal index, vein islet number, and palisade ratio can provide identifying characteristics when examined microscopically.
This document discusses the science of pharmacy and pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacy as dealing with the procurement, testing, storage, and conversion of drugs into suitable forms. Pharmacognosy is defined as the study of drugs from biological origins, including plants, animals, and minerals. The document outlines the scope of pharmacognosy, including isolation of phytochemicals, structure-activity relationships, cultivation of medicinal plants, and development of herbal formulations. Physical and chemical parameters used to evaluate crude drugs are also summarized, such as ash values, swelling factor, and extractive values.
Cultivation, collection and processing of crude drugsodikig
This document provides information on the cultivation and processing of medicinal plants. It discusses topics such as advantages and disadvantages of cultivation, methods of propagation (sexual and asexual), nursery preparation, factors affecting cultivation, pest control, collection and processing of crude drugs. The processing involves harvesting, drying methods, packing and storage/preservation of crude drugs. Asexual propagation techniques like cutting, layering and grafting are also explained.
Cinchona bark comes from several species of Cinchona trees native to South America. It contains alkaloids such as quinine and quinidine that have antimalarial properties. The document describes the biological source, geographical source, cultivation methods, morphology, microscopic characteristics, chemical tests, chemical constituents, uses and allied drugs of Cinchona bark.
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are aromatic oily liquids found in many plants. They are highly volatile and evaporate easily at room temperature. Volatile oils are composed of hydrocarbons and oxidized hydrocarbons derived from terpenes. They are found stored in secretory cells, cavities, or channels located in different parts of plants. Volatile oils have various therapeutic uses and are also used in perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings due to their strong aromas. They are extracted from plants using various techniques including water and steam distillation, solvent extraction, and enfleurage.
Crude drugs are naturally occurring substances derived from plants, animals, bacteria or fungi that are used for medicinal purposes. They include whole or cut plants, plant or animal parts, juices, glands, dried plant secretions and animal extracts. Crude drugs can be classified in several ways including by their source (plants, animals, minerals), plant organ (roots, leaves, fruits), pharmacological effects, chemical constituents or taxonomic classification. The most common sources are higher plants, microbes, animals and marine organisms. Crude drugs are either organized tissues like herbs, fruits, barks or unorganized substances like juices, oils, gums or resins.
Belladonna herb consists of dried leaves and other aerial parts of Atropa belladonna Linn. from the Solanaceae family. It is found in England, Europe, and the western Himalayas of India. Belladonna is cultivated at altitudes of 1400 m from crushed berries. The leaves are harvested and dried while retaining their green color. Belladonna contains alkaloids like hyoscyamine and atropine and is used as a sedative, to treat asthma, colic, motion sickness, and pain.
This document discusses glycosides, which are organic natural compounds found in many plants and some animals. Glycosides are composed of a sugar (glycone) and non-sugar (aglycone) moiety linked together by a glycosidic linkage. The sugar is often glucose but can also be other sugars. Glycosides have therapeutic effects when the aglycone is released upon hydrolysis. The document further classifies and discusses the properties, extraction, uses and examples of various types of glycosides including saponins, liquorice roots, brahmi, dioscorea, ginseng, and sarsaparilla.
Classification of crude drugs by pooja khanparaPOOJA KHANPARA
This document discusses the various methods of classifying crude drugs, which are unprocessed materials from plants, animals, or minerals used for medicinal purposes. It describes six main classification systems: alphabetical, morphological, taxonomical, chemical, pharmacological, and chemo-taxonomical. The morphological system groups drugs based on whether they are organized (cellular) parts of plants and animals or unorganized (acellular) secretions and excretions. The chemical system categorizes drugs based on their main active chemical constituents. The pharmacological system is based on therapeutic effects. The taxonomical system follows taxonomic relationships between organisms. The document provides examples for each classification method.
Drugs are obtained from six major sources: plant sources, animal sources, mineral/earth sources, microbiological sources, semi-synthetic sources, and recombinant DNA technology. Plant sources provide most drugs in ancient times and include leaves, stems, bark, fruits, and roots of plants. Animal sources include organs and fluids like the pancreas, urine, thyroid, cod liver, pituitary gland, and blood. Mineral sources consist of metals and non-metals like iron, mercury, zinc, iodine, and gold. Microbiological sources include fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. Semi-synthetic drugs have a natural source nucleus but an altered chemical structure. Recombinant DNA involves inserting genes into bacteria
This document discusses the classification of crude drugs. Crude drugs are plant, animal, or mineral materials that are used as medicines in their unpurified or natural forms. They can be classified in several ways, including alphabetically by name, morphologically by plant or animal part, taxonomically by biological classification, chemically by active constituents, pharmacologically by therapeutic effects, and chemo-taxonomically by both chemical constituents and taxonomy. The morphological classification divides crude drugs into organized (cellular) materials like leaves, roots, and seeds versus unorganized (acellular) materials like resins, oils, and minerals. The document provides examples to illustrate each classification method.
This document discusses various methods of classifying crude drugs, including alphabetical, taxonomic, morphological, chemical, pharmacological, chemotaxonomic, and serotaxonomic classification. Each method is described along with its advantages and disadvantages. Alphabetical classification arranges drugs by name, while taxonomic classification is based on the biological classification of plants. Morphological classification groups drugs based on the plant part used. Chemical and pharmacological classification consider the active chemical constituents and therapeutic effects. Chemotaxonomic and serotaxonomic classification examine chemical similarities and antigen-antibody reactions between taxa.
Cultivation and collection of drugs of natural originZuli Shingala
cultivation and collection of medicinal plants, processing, storage, etc. with various factors that affects cultivation and collection of medicinal plants
Senna is the dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia used as a laxative. It is mainly cultivated in parts of India like Tinnevelly, Madurai, and Ramnathpuram. Senna contains anthraquinone glycosides like sennoside A and B which are responsible for its purgative effects by increasing intestinal motility and reducing water absorption. The document details the pharmacognostic features, chemical constituents, extraction methods, uses, and adulterants of senna.
Gums & mucilage have similar constitutions and on hydrolysis yield a mixture of sugars & uronic acids.
Gums are considered to be pathological products, While mucilage is formed by normal metabolism.
Plant tissue culture is the process of producing plants from tissue of a desired plant in a controlled nutrient medium, producing an exact replica of the mother plant. Plant biotechnology genetically modifies plants by manipulating genes in a laboratory and transferring them to a plant to alter its characteristics. The goals of modern plant biotechnology include improving crop production through traits like increased nutrition, disease resistance, insect control, and weed management. Applications include producing golden rice with more vitamin A, plants resistant to viruses, crops containing genes for natural insecticides, and herbicide-resistant crops. Future areas may include caffeine-free coffee, pharmaceuticals, and using plants as biofuel sources.
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are liquids that evaporate readily at normal temperatures. They are obtained primarily through distillation or solvent extraction of plant materials and have characteristic odors and flavors. Major methods of obtaining volatile oils include water distillation, water and steam distillation, direct steam distillation, solvent extraction, expression, enfleurage, and destructive distillation. Volatile oils consist mainly of terpenes and phenylpropanoids and are important as spices, fragrances, and flavorings.
The document discusses various classes of terpene alcohols found in essential oils including monoterpene, sesquiterpene, and aromatic alcohols. It describes their isolation, identification, properties, and uses. Key alcohols mentioned include citronellol, geraniol, linalool, menthol, borneol, santalol, thymol, and eugenol. Methods for preparing and separating derivatives of these alcohols are also summarized.
This document provides information on the leaf structure and morphology of plants. It defines a leaf and describes leaf characteristics such as shape, size, texture, venation, and margin. It discusses leaf types including simple, compound, and modified leaves. The internal structure of leaves is examined including the epidermis, mesophyll, vascular tissue, and trichomes. Stomata types and distribution are covered. Specific leaf details are given for Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata, medicinal plants used for their cardiac glycoside content.
The document discusses different types of wood. It defines wood as a hard, fibrous tissue found in tree stems and roots. Wood consists mainly of secondary xylem and may contain some primary xylem and pith. There are two main types of wood - sapwood and heartwood. Sapwood is lighter in color and contains living cells and food reserves, while heartwood is darker and contains substances like oils, gums, and resins. The document also describes different cell types found in wood, including fibers, tracheids, vessels, and parenchyma, as well as forms of cell wall thickening and structures like tyloses and annual rings.
The document summarizes key information about several plants from the Family Compositae (Asteraceae). It describes their botanical origins, physical characteristics, active chemical constituents and common uses. The plants discussed include Roman chamomile, German chamomile, pyrethrum, santonica, calendula, safflower and arnica. For each one, the summary provides details about their inflorescence structures, floret types and distinguishing microscopic features.
The document discusses flowers and their morphology. It defines flowers and their essential parts including the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium. It describes how flowers can be classified based on their arrangement of floral parts, number of whorls, symmetry, presence of sexual organs, and more. The summary provides high-level information about the topic and structure of the document in 3 sentences:
The document defines flowers and their morphology, discussing their essential parts and how they can be classified based on characteristics like arrangement of parts, number of whorls, and presence of sexual organs. It provides details on the calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium
Carbohydrates are sugars that provide energy when consumed. Our bodies break down carbohydrates into glucose, which is the primary energy source. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure from simple to complex: monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are the simplest; disaccharides like sucrose and lactose contain two monosaccharide units; and polysaccharides like starch contain many monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds. Common tests are used to identify and characterize different carbohydrates.
This document provides information about the botanical source, geographical source, cultivation, collection, macroscopic and microscopic characteristics, chemical constituents, uses, and substitutes/adulterants of several herbal drugs including Fennel fruit, Coriander fruit, Cassia bark, Clove bud, Cinnamon, Dill, Caraway, Ajowan, Cardamom, and Nutmeg. It discusses the plant species, parts used, chemical profiles and typical applications of these medicinal herbs.
This document provides information on fruits, including their definition, formation, functions, classification, and macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. It specifically discusses umbelliferous fruits like fennel, anise, and hemlock. Key details include the botanical origins, macroscopic features, tissue structures, active constituents, uses, and potential adulterants of fennel and anise fruits. Hemlock is also mentioned as an adulterant that can be distinguished from anise by its morphology, histology, and chemical properties.
1) The document discusses several medicinal roots and rhizomes including their botanical origins, macroscopic and microscopic characteristics, active chemical constituents, traditional uses, and safety information.
2) Ginger, turmeric, liquorice, rhubarb, gentian, ginseng, and valerian roots are analyzed in detail regarding their traditional medicinal properties and modern uses such as treating nausea, liver conditions, coughs, and sleep disorders.
3) The roots contain various volatile oils, glycosides, flavonoids, and other chemical compounds that are suggested to contribute to their medicinal effects, though the specific mechanisms of action require further research.
The document provides information about the morphology, microscopic features, chemical constituents and uses of various seeds including black mustard, white mustard, fenugreek, plantain, colchicum, cardamom, nigella, cocoa, castor, coffee, stramonium, pumpkin and calabar beans. For each seed, it describes its botanical origin, active chemical constituents which are responsible for its pharmacological actions, and traditional uses. The seeds discussed have various medicinal properties and uses such as laxatives, emetics, rubefacients, bronchodilators, stimulants etc.
Essential oils are complex mixtures obtained primarily through steam distillation of plant materials like flowers, leaves, seeds, and roots. The use of aromatherapy and essential oils can be traced back over 7,000 years, with evidence found in ancient Australian aborigines and various ancient civilizations using essential oils for purposes like fumigation and pressing oils from plants. In the 15th century, the use of essential oils expanded, but declined with the discovery of penicillin in the 1930s. In the 1930s-40s, French chemist Rene-Maurice Gattefosse and Dr. Jean Valnet helped popularize modern aromatherapy through research and publications on using essential oils to treat ail
The document discusses the flavours, fragrances, and essential oils industry including definitions, the nature of the industry, uses and markets, natural product chemistry, extraction methods, and regulatory requirements. It also covers topics like the olfactory system, classification of fragrances, essential oil production models, and potential research areas and careers in the industry.
Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs from natural sources. Crude drugs are unprocessed materials from plants or animals used medicinally. They are evaluated through organoleptic, microscopic, chemical, and physical methods to determine identity, quality, and purity. Extraction is used to separate the active constituents of crude drugs using solvents. Common extraction methods include maceration, percolation, digestion, decoction, and Soxhlet extraction. The solvent dissolves the active compounds while leaving behind inert plant matter.
This document provides an introduction to pharmacognosy, including definitions, history and sources of drugs from natural origins such as plants, animals and marine sources. It discusses the classification of crude drugs based on various parameters as well as the quality control of natural crude drugs through organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical and biological evaluation methods. The topics covered include the scope of pharmacognosy, historical developments, sources of drugs from plants, animals and microbes, and the systematic study of crude drugs.
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. It includes the isolation and analysis of phytochemicals from plants, studying the structure-activity relationships of compounds, using natural products as models for synthesizing new drugs, and investigating drugs used in traditional medicine. Some key areas are the isolation of active substances from plants, relating chemical structures to pharmacological effects, producing drugs through partial synthesis or biosynthesis of natural precursors, and exploring natural products' roles in drug discovery.
Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs derived from natural sources. It involves the identification, characterization, cultivation, extraction, preparation, quality control, and assessment of bioactive compounds from natural sources. Some key areas of pharmacognosy include the isolation of phytochemicals, studying structure-activity relationships of compounds, obtaining drugs through partial synthesis of natural products, using natural products as models for synthesizing new drugs, and investigating biosynthetic pathways. Developments in fields like microbiology, analytical chemistry, and related sciences have contributed to the growth of pharmacognosy as an applied science.
Introduction to Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry-I.pdfAkshay Daswad
Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs obtained from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals. It deals with the identification, extraction, isolation, and evaluation of constituents from biological sources and their subsequent preservation and preparation. The term was introduced in 1815 by C.A. Seydler to mean "knowledge of drugs". Pharmacognosy applies scientific techniques to understand the composition and properties of natural substances with therapeutic effects. It has historically involved the identification and description of crude drugs, but modern pharmacognosy also utilizes organic chemistry, biochemistry, and other analytical techniques to isolate, characterize, and standardize active pharmaceutical ingredients from natural sources.
The document provides an overview of pharmacognosy, including its definition, history, and applications. Pharmacognosy is defined as the study of drugs from natural sources, especially plants and animals. The history discusses early records of medicinal plants in Egypt and India and contributions from Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides. Modern pharmacognosy applies various analytical techniques to study plant structures and isolate bioactive compounds. Key applications include plant extraction, biomarker development, herbal nanomedicines, and investigating phytochemical mechanisms of aging. The scope covers areas like isolation, structure-activity relationships, and cultivation of medicinal plants.
This document discusses herbs and herbal medicines. It defines herbs as leafy or flowering parts of plants used for culinary, medicinal, or spiritual purposes. Herbal medicines can be raw plant materials, processed plant materials, or herbal medicinal products. The document emphasizes the importance of properly identifying, authenticating, and processing herbal raw materials to ensure safety and efficacy of the final herbal product.
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicinal drugs derived from natural sources, including plants, animals, and minerals. It involves analyzing the biological, chemical, biochemical, and physical properties of crude drugs. The historical development of pharmacognosy dates back thousands of years, as early civilizations used plants and other natural substances for medicinal purposes. Over time, knowledge about the use of crude drugs was documented in various ancient texts from cultures around the world. Modern pharmacognosy focuses on studying naturally derived medicinal ingredients and their applications in conventional and alternative medicines.
This document outlines the key technical terms and areas of study involved in the pharmacognostic evaluation of crude drugs. It discusses official title, synonyms, biological source, geographical distribution, cultivation and collection, macroscopy and microscopy, chemical constituents and chemical tests, therapeutic and pharmaceutical uses, substitutes and adulterants, and storage and preservation. The purpose of pharmacognostic studies is to properly identify and characterize crude drugs through examination of their origin, appearance, microscopic features, chemical properties, constituents, uses, potential substitutes or adulterants, and appropriate storage conditions.
Introduction to pharmacognosy,classification of drugs,quality control of drug...Sri Lakshmi
This document provides an introduction to the field of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of medicinal or therapeutic agents of natural origin, including plants, animals, and minerals. The document discusses the history of pharmacognosy and natural products in medicine. It also covers different classifications of crude drugs, including morphological, chemical, and taxonomic classifications. The classifications are based on factors like the plant or animal part, chemical constituents, and biological taxonomy.
Introduction to Pharmacognosy, History, Scope in Pharmacy.pptGulam Muheyuddeen
Pharmacognosy is the study of medicinal plants and natural products. It involves the collection, identification, extraction and biological testing of plant and animal materials used in traditional medicine. Pharmacognosists study the botany, chemistry and pharmacology of these natural substances to develop safe and effective pharmaceutical drugs. They isolate and characterize active compounds from natural sources and evaluate the pharmacology of crude extracts and isolated constituents using techniques like bioassays and clinical trials.
This document provides an overview of an introductory pharmacognosy course. The course aims to describe aspects of crude drugs, natural extraction methods, and evaluating compounds from natural sources. It will also cover advising patients about herb-drug interactions. The document defines pharmacognosy as the study of medicines derived from natural sources and outlines the course description, introduction, and scope of the subject.
This chapter discusses various methods for classifying crude drugs, including alphabetical, taxonomic, morphological, pharmacological, chemical, chemotaxonomic, and serotaxonomic classification. The alphabetical classification method arranges crude drugs in alphabetical order by their Latin, English, or local names and is the simplest approach. However, it does not consider the biological relationships between drugs. The taxonomic classification method classifies drugs according to their taxonomic ranks, from kingdom to species, providing information on their biological relationships but it can be complex. Other classification methods organize drugs based on their morphology, pharmacological effects, chemical constituents, or time of collection. Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses.
chapter -1 pharmacognosy bpharm 4th sem cognosyDragonWarrior34
This document provides an introduction to pharmacognosy, including definitions, history and scope. Pharmacognosy is defined as the study of crude drugs from natural sources. The history of pharmacognosy dates back thousands of years to ancient texts like the Rigveda and Ayurveda in India. Significant developments over time include the identification and isolation of active constituents from plants in the 19th-20th centuries and the use of biotechnology and genetic engineering today. The scope of pharmacognosy includes identifying, cultivating and standardizing natural drugs as well as discovering new drugs from natural sources. Major sources of drugs discussed are plants, animals, microbes, minerals and marine sources.
This document provides an introduction and overview of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of medicinal products from natural sources, including plants, animals, and minerals. The document then discusses the historical development of pharmacognosy from ancient civilizations like Babylon, Egypt, India, Greece, and China to modern developments. It also outlines the scope of pharmacognosy, including isolation of phytochemicals, structure-activity relationships, cultivation of medicinal plants, herbal formulations, and investigation of biosynthetic pathways. Finally, it briefly introduces some traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy.
This document discusses the isolation, purification, and screening of plant constituents from medicinal plants. It covers selecting promising plant materials, properly collecting and authenticating samples, drying the plants, extracting and fractionating constituents using various techniques like maceration, percolation, digestion. The goal is to separate medicinally active portions of plants using selective solvents and extraction methods. Various identification methods are also mentioned to elucidate the structure of isolated compounds. The overall process aims to obtain pure active compounds from plants for pharmacological evaluation and drug development.
This document provides an overview of pharmacy as both an art and a science. It discusses what pharmacy is, including identifying, collecting, combining, preparing and dispensing drugs. It also summarizes homoeopathic pharmacy and the functions of pharmacy in generating drug knowledge. The document outlines the parts of pharmacy like identification and quality inspection. It describes pharmacy as both an art that utilizes skillful preparation and a science that systematically studies drugs. The branches and related terms of pharmacy are defined. Finally, it briefly summarizes the history of related sciences like botany and zoology.
This document provides an introduction to the field of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of drugs from natural sources, including their composition, characteristics, and uses. The document outlines the history of pharmacognosy from ancient Greek physicians to modern studies of plant and animal extracts. It also discusses the scope of pharmacognosy, key terms, classification systems for natural drugs, and sources of medicinal compounds.
This document discusses several herbal medicines and their potential use in cancer therapy. It describes several plants such as Catharanthus roseus, Podophyllum hexandrum, Ocimum sanctum, Allium sativum, Taxus baccata, Curcuma longa, and Zingiber officinalis. For each plant, it discusses active chemical constituents and their proposed mechanisms of anticancer action, such as inhibiting cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis, modulating immune responses, and inhibiting angiogenesis. The document suggests that some herbal medicines show promise as potential treatments or adjuncts to chemotherapy, though more research is still needed to fully understand their mechanisms and safety.
This document provides an overview of chromatography techniques. It begins with a brief history of chromatography from 1903 to 1965. It then discusses the importance of chromatography and its applications in various fields. The document defines chromatography and describes various techniques including thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography, and ion exchange chromatography. It explains the theoretical bases and factors affecting chromatographic separation. Finally, it discusses terminology, applications, and detection methods in chromatography.
Phytotherapy of Endocrine and Metabolic DisordersMarwa A.A. Fayed
This document discusses several natural products that can be used to treat obesity and hyperlipidemia. It describes appetite suppressants such as Hoodia gordonii, Citrus aurantium, and Garcinia cambogia that work by suppressing appetite. It also discusses satiety enhancers high in fiber like oat bran and apples that promote fullness. Finally, it covers herbs that interfere with fat absorption and metabolism like chitosan, foenugreek, green tea, and garlic. The document provides details on the active constituents and mechanisms of these natural anti-obesity agents.
1. Linseed is a bulk-forming laxative that works by increasing stool bulk. It contains fibers, mucilage and fatty acids. The daily dose is 20-45g to treat constipation by producing soft stool. Side effects are rare. It should not be used long-term or by those with certain gastrointestinal issues.
2. Isphagula and psyllium are also bulk-forming laxatives that work by swelling in the gastrointestinal tract to increase stool bulk. They are used to treat chronic constipation. Side effects include gas and obstruction risks if taken without enough fluid.
3. Senna is a stimulant laxative that works by increasing intestinal motility and fluid secretion.
This document discusses herbal medicines for treating various gastro intestinal disorders. It describes the anatomy and functions of the gastro intestinal tract. Common causes of poor digestive health include insufficient or excessive secretions, infections, and stress. Several herbs are beneficial for treating mouth disorders like ulcers, including chamomile, licorice, echinacea, myrrh and propolis. For stomach disorders like gastritis, chamomile, peppermint, and lemon balm can help relieve inflammation, spasms, and nausea. Chronic conditions are treated with bitters to stimulate appetite and digestion, and demulcents to soothe the lining. Herbs like ginger, angelica, and calamus are discussed
This document provides an overview of herbal medicine (also known as phytotherapy). It discusses the history and use of herbal medicines, characteristics of herbal drugs, herbal approaches to diseases, and commonly used herbal supplements. The document outlines the objectives of learning about herbal medicine and introduces key concepts such as herbalism, botanical medicine, conventional vs. herbal medicine, and alternative/complementary medicine. Examples of alternative therapies like acupuncture, chiropractic, and cupping are also mentioned.
The document discusses herbs and their classification. It describes herbs as plants whose stems do not become woody and permanent. Herbs are classified based on their life duration as annual, biennial, or perennial. The document then focuses on the macroscopic and microscopic structures of herbaceous stems, including their shape, surface features, types of vascular bundles, and commercial medicinal herbs like Lobelia, Hyoscyamus, Mentha, and Thyme.
This document discusses various types of drugs that can be classified based on their origin and nature, including resins, gums, dried latices, dried juices, dried extracts, and saccharine substances. It provides examples of each type and describes the composition, preparation, and properties of several resins - including turpentine, colophony, guaiacum resin, and mastic resin. It also discusses the oleo-resin male fern and its active constituents and identification test.
The document defines and describes different types of inflorescences, which is the arrangement of flowers on a plant. There are three main types: racemose, with indefinite growth and youngest flowers at the center; cymose, with definite growth and oldest flowers at the center; and mixed, which has characteristics of both racemose and cymose types. Specific inflorescences like racemes, corymbs, umbels and others are further explained in terms of their floral structure and growth patterns.
1. The document discusses several subterranean plant organs including rhizomes, roots, tubers, corms, bulbs, and their distinguishing characteristics.
2. Rhizomes are described as horizontally-growing underground stems that produce shoots and adventitious roots, while roots derive from the radical and grow vertically towards soil and water.
3. Ginger and turmeric are provided as examples of medicinal plants whose rhizomes are used as drugs, with details on active constituents and traditional medical uses.
- Yeast is a simple unicellular fungus that grows in saccharine fluids and produces proteins, B vitamins, and enzymes. It is used as a nutritional supplement and in manufacturing.
- Seaweed contains algin and fucosterol. It is used to prepare alginates and can help reduce obesity.
- Carrageenan from seaweed is used as a demulcent, emulsifier, and in peptic ulcer treatment.
- Lichen contains lichenin, isolichenin, and fumaroproto-cetrartic acid. It is used as a bitter tonic and to prepare a demulcent and nutrient jelly.
This document describes the botanical origins, active constituents, uses, and contraindications of three herbal medicines:
1) Passionflower is the dried flowering tops of Passiflora incarnata used to treat anxiety, insomnia, seizures, and withdrawal symptoms. It should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation.
2) Cannabis comes from Cannabis sativa plants and contains tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinoids. It has CNS effects as a stimulant and analgesic but can cause addiction, lung problems, and increased risk of psychosis with regular use.
3) St. John's Wort is the flowering plant Hypericum perforatum, which contains hypericin and pseud
Mentha herb, commonly known as peppermint, is the dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita. It has an aromatic odor and taste, with opposite decussate leaves and purple flowers. Microscopically, it is characterized by the presence of epidermal cells, non-glandular hairs, glandular labiaceous hairs, xylem vessels and fibers. It contains volatile oil with menthol and is used for digestive issues, as a decongestant, and in toothpaste, mouthwashes and capsules. Thyme herb is the dried aerial parts of Thymus vulgaris and other Thymus species. It has quadrangular stems
This document describes the macroscopic and microscopic examination of the stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds of the Lobelia and Hyoscyamus plants. It discusses the physical characteristics, powder microscopy, and active chemical constituents of each herb. The uses, side effects, toxicity, and pharmaceutical preparations of Lobelia and Hyoscyamus are also summarized.
Herbs are defined as non-woody plants that die down to the ground after flowering. They may consist of aerial parts like stems, leaves, and flowers. Herbs are classified based on their life duration as annual, biennial, or perennial. The stem is the main axis that supports leaves and other plant organs. Its functions include transport, support, and storage. Stem characteristics include shape, type (herbaceous, succulent, woody), surface features, branching patterns, and internal structure visible microscopically. Medically important herbs include Lobelia, Hyoscyamus, Mentha, and others containing volatile oils, alkaloids, or other compounds.
The document describes the anatomy and morphology of leaves. It defines leaves and their key parts like the lamina, petiole, stipules, and veins. It describes the different types of leaves including foliage leaves, bracts, and modified leaves. It also covers leaf arrangements, shapes, margins, bases, textures, and venation. The second half discusses microscopical leaf structures like the epidermis, cuticle, trichomes, stomata and their types. In summary, the document provides a comprehensive overview of leaf structure from the macroscopic to microscopic level.
Pharmacognosy deals with plants and animals that yield drug substances, their properties, methods of harvesting crude drugs, processing, storing, and extracting active constituents. It also involves the identification, cultivation, collection, drying, and other processing of crude drugs. Key factors that affect medicinal plants include environmental conditions, soil contents, growth regulators, and genetics. Proper identification of the biological and geographical source of crude drugs is important for ensuring the right material is obtained.
1. Bark is the outer protective layer of stems and roots of woody plants. It consists of inner bark and outer bark.
2. The outer bark protects the tree from weather, insects and fungi. The inner bark transports food made in the leaves throughout the tree.
3. Bark has important structural, protective and transport functions and can be used to identify tree species. Different barks have distinct characteristics and chemical compositions that determine their uses.
Slide Presentation from a Doctoral Virtual Open House presented on June 30, 2024 by staff and faculty of Capitol Technology University
Covers degrees offered, program details, tuition, financial aid and the application process.
How to Install Theme in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
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Beyond the Advance Presentation for By the Book 9John Rodzvilla
In June 2020, L.L. McKinney, a Black author of young adult novels, began the #publishingpaidme hashtag to create a discussion on how the publishing industry treats Black authors: “what they’re paid. What the marketing is. How the books are treated. How one Black book not reaching its parameters casts a shadow on all Black books and all Black authors, and that’s not the same for our white counterparts.” (Grady 2020) McKinney’s call resulted in an online discussion across 65,000 tweets between authors of all races and the creation of a Google spreadsheet that collected information on over 2,000 titles.
While the conversation was originally meant to discuss the ethical value of book publishing, it became an economic assessment by authors of how publishers treated authors of color and women authors without a full analysis of the data collected. This paper would present the data collected from relevant tweets and the Google database to show not only the range of advances among participating authors split out by their race, gender, sexual orientation and the genre of their work, but also the publishers’ treatment of their titles in terms of deal announcements and pre-pub attention in industry publications. The paper is based on a multi-year project of cleaning and evaluating the collected data to assess what it reveals about the habits and strategies of American publishers in acquiring and promoting titles from a diverse group of authors across the literary, non-fiction, children’s, mystery, romance, and SFF genres.
Split Shifts From Gantt View in the Odoo 17Celine George
Odoo allows users to split long shifts into multiple segments directly from the Gantt view.Each segment retains details of the original shift, such as employee assignment, start time, end time, and specific tasks or descriptions.
Front Desk Management in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Front desk officers are responsible for taking care of guests and customers. Their work mainly involves interacting with customers and business partners, either in person or through phone calls.
Credit limit improvement system in odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo 17, confirmed and uninvoiced sales orders are now factored into a partner's total receivables. As a result, the credit limit warning system now considers this updated calculation, leading to more accurate and effective credit management.
How to Add Colour Kanban Records in Odoo 17 NotebookCeline George
In Odoo 17, you can enhance the visual appearance of your Kanban view by adding color-coded records using the Notebook feature. This allows you to categorize and distinguish between different types of records based on specific criteria. By adding colors, you can quickly identify and prioritize tasks or items, improving organization and efficiency within your workflow.
(T.L.E.) Agriculture: Essentials of GardeningMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏.𝟎)-𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐬
Lesson Outcome:
-Students will understand the basics of gardening, including the importance of soil, water, and sunlight for plant growth. They will learn to identify and use essential gardening tools, plant seeds, and seedlings properly, and manage common garden pests using eco-friendly methods.
How to Store Data on the Odoo 17 WebsiteCeline George
Here we are going to discuss how to store data in Odoo 17 Website.
It includes defining a model with few fields in it. Add demo data into the model using data directory. Also using a controller, pass the values into the template while rendering it and display the values in the website.
2. Pharmacognosy deals with:
• The plants and animals that yield drug
substances.
• 2-The chemical, physical and biological properties
of the substances.
• 3- The methods employed in harvesting the
crude drugs.
• 4- The methods employed in processing and
storing crude drugs.
• 5- The methods used for extraction and
preparation of their active constituents.
• 6- The knowledge of the medicinal uses of the
crude drugs.
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3. For detailed description of drugs, the following
parameters should be fulfilled:
• the biological and geographical sources,
• a short note on the history
• and the name of the drug.
• cultivation of the plant,
• collection of the part used,
• drying,
• packing
• and other treatments of the drugs during its
course from the biological source to market.
1- Origin:
2- Cultivation and preparation:
4. • Including the macro- and microscopical
characters.
•
• The chemical identification of the drug.
3- Characters:
4- Constituents
5- Chemical tests
6- Adulteration and/or substitution
7- Isolation and purification of the active constituents
8- Uses of the drug in folk medicine and therapy
5. Crude drug = Raw Drug
• It is the harvested and usually the dried plant
or animal sources of pharmaceutically or
medicinally useful products before they have
undergone extensive processing or
modification.
• It is a part of plant or animal, which has been,
or still, used in medicine or such products of
these vegetable parts which have been
extracted but not used by it.
Crude Drugs
6. • Entire plants or animals i.e Lobelia, Mentha,
Cantharidis, Cochineal.
• Entire members of plants or animals i.e Clove
and thyroid gland.
• Minerals i.e. Chalk, Kaolin and Talc.
• Substances derived from plants or animals i.e.
Opium, Aloes, Tragacanth, Resins, Musk, Beeswax
and Gelatin.
Examples of Crude Drugs:
7. • Fibres and Fabrics used for making surgical
dressings
• i.e Materials used as strainers for filteration or
for clarifying cloudy liquids, “Filteration
Material” e.g. Diatomite and Asbestos, also
substances as Agar, Gelatin and Wax.
• Materials used for destruction of insect pests
“Insecticides and Pesticides” i.e Derris and
Pyrethrum.
8. • 1- Identification of the source of the materials
forming a drug.
• 2- Determination of its morphological characters.
• 3- Investigation of the potency of the drug, purity
and freedom from admixture.
• 4- Planning the proper methods of cultivation of
the medicinal plants yielding these drugs.
• 5- Prescription of details of processes of collection
and preparation.
• 6- Detailed knowledge of the constituents of drugs
and investigation of their chemical nature and
various reactions.
Functions of a pharmacognosist
9. Classification of Crude drugs
Vegetable drugs are usually arranged for study in
one or other of the following ways:
1- Alphabetical:
using either Latin or English names; the drugs are
arranged in an alphabetical order.
2- Taxonomic:
using one of the accepted systems of botanical
classification; the drugs are according to the plants
from which they are obtained in phyla, orders,
families. Genera and species.
10. • 3- Morphological:
• dividing the drugs into groups e.g. leaves,
flowers, fruits, seeds,..... which are referred to as
“Organized drugs", and groups as dried lattices,
extracts, gums, resins, oils, fats and waxes which
are known as “Unorganized drugs".
• 4- Chemical:
• the drugs are divided into groups according to
their most important constituents.
• e.g. drugs containing volatile oils, glycosides,
alkaloids, bitter principles, tannins, saponins,......
11. 5- Pharmacological and therapeutic effects:
• grouping of drugs according to the
pharmacological action of their most important
constituents or their therapeutic use.
• e.g. astringent, irritant, drugs affecting the
gastrointestinal tract, drugs promoting systemic
effects on the muscle and nervous system, drugs
affecting the circulatory system, drugs used
chemotherapeutically for the treatment of
infectious diseases, etc....
12. • Drugs are either official or unofficial.
• An official drug is one which is listed and
described in a book recognized by the
government as the legal authority for
standards “Pharmacopoeia’’.
• The 1st Egyptian Pharmacopeia appeared in
English in 1953 and in Arabic in 1961.
Official and unofficial drugs
13. • There are two origins for each drug; the
natural or biological, as well as, the
geographical origin.
• The commercial origin is also of interest
in case of certain drugs.
Origin of drugs
14. • It is the plant or animal yielding it, if a plant,
botanical origin or botanical source and if an
animal, zoological origin or source.
• The knowledge of the biological source
enables one to indicate with certainty the
proper right material and the precise article
one wishes to obtain.
1-The natural or biological
origin (source(
15. • e.g. Strophanthus is used as a heart tonic and
includes about 30 species, all species from the
same district in central Africa.
• One year, the drug is active, even poisonous and
in other cases it is inactive. This is due to the fact
that the drug is gathered from any species, which
collectors amy find.
• If the drug is obtained from one and the same
species the supply of the drug will be always of
the same potency.
• So the identification of the exact origin of the
drug needs comparison with authentic or
genuine samples or identification by comparison
with herbarium or referring to gardens or
museums.
16. The binomial system for nomenclature of
drugs
• Is due to Swedish biologist Linnaeus, in this system the
first name, which is always spelt with Capital letter,
denotes the genus.
• whilst the second name denotes the species. It is
however, still equally correct to use capital where the
species is named after a person.
• Thus the species of Cinchona named after Charles Ledger,
who brought its seed from Brazil 1865, is known as
Cinchona Ledgeriana.
• It is noted that the pharmacopoeias and research papers,
botanical names are followed by names of persons which
refer to the botanist who first described the species or
variety.
17. • The specific name is usually chosen to indicate:
1- Some striking characteristics of the plant:
• a- Glycyrrhiza glabra
(glabrous = smooth).
Refers to the fruit of this species which is a smooth pod.
• b- Atropa belladonna
(bella = beautiful, donna = lady)
the juice of the berry placed in the eyes causes
dilatation of the pupils, thus giving a striking
appearance).
• c- Hyoscyamus muticus
(muticus = short).
The plant being short.
18. 2- A characteristic colour:
a- Piper nigrum (nigrum = black)
b- Veratrum viride (viride = green)
c- Citrus aurantium (aurantium = golden yellow)
d- Digitalis purpurea (purpurea = purple)
e- Digitalis lutea (lutea = yellow)
3- An aromatic plant or certain aroma:
a- Myritaceae fragrans (having a fragrant, nice
aroma)
b- Caryophyllus aromaticus (refers to the aroma)
19. 4- Geographical source or history of a drug:
• Cannabis indica (growing in India)
5- Pharmaceutical activity or an active
constituents:
a- Papaver somniferum (sleep inducing)
b- Quillaia saponaria (containing saponins)
6- General meaning or a special indication
a- Allium sativum (= cultivated)
b- Triticum vulgaire (= wild)
20. • It is the region in which the plant or animal
yielding the drug grows.
• Knowledge of the geographical source also
assists in identification of the biological origin,
because it is generally known that plants of
certain type come from particular districts and
one may often exclude from consideration
entire families of plants, as well as, individual
species or one may deduce the possibility that
the drug may be derived from a plant
belonging to one of some few families
characteristic of the region.
2- Geographical sources of drugs
21. • Every climatic region of the earth is the native
habitat of some species of animals and plants.
• Drugs are collected in all parts of the world, the
Mediterranean region yields more drugs than any
region of the world however India, East Indies,
Europe, South and Central America yield
numerous valuable drugs.
• It is important to note that the habitat affects not
only the constituents but also the medicinal value
of the natural drug.
22. • The commercial origin drugs refer to the
countries included in their production and/or
their channels of trade so such drugs frequently
bear a geographical name indicating:
• 1- The country in which they are collected
i.e. English Hyoscyamus
• 2- The city from which they are shipped
i.e Alexandrian Senna
• 3- Indicate a certain veriety
i.e Spanish Liquorice
3- Commercial origin
23. • Production of crude drugs from their
medicinal plants involves the following steps:
• I. Cultivation
• II. Collection
• III. Drying
• IV. Packing
• V. Preservation and protection
Production of Crude Drugs
24. • Crude medicinal drugs may be collected from:
- Wild growing medicinal plants
- Cultivated medicinal plants.
• Plants growing in their native countries are said
to be indigenous to these regions,
• e.g. Aconitum napellus of the mountainous
regions of Europe,
• Hyoscyamus muticus of Egypt, Cannabis sativa of
India.
• Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow
in a foreign land or in locality other than their
native home.
Cultivation of medicinal plants
25. Collection of Crude drugs from wild
growing medicinal plants has the
following disadvantages
• 1- Wild medicinal plants found spread in wide
distribution “unlimited areas”.
• 2- There is significant difficulty in collection and
transportation because they are mostly growing
in deserts and forests far from any means of
transport.
• 3- Continuous extensive collection of wild
medicinal plants can lead to extinction or serious
deficiency of the plant.
• 4- the collected amount of wild medicinal plants
may be insufficient for the market needs.
26. • 5- Adulteration; collection of crude medicinal
drugs from wild sources may lead to
adulteration that can be attributed to
ignorance of collectors who may collect:
• a- The desired plant with others.
• b- Undesirable organ of the desired plant.
• c- The desired plant at improper time.
27. Collection of Crude drugs from
cultivated growing medicinal plants
has the following advantages
• 1- Concentration of a large quantity of the plant
of choice in relatively small areas simplifies
collection.
• 2- Cultivation provides an excellent mean for
control of the purity of the crude drug.
• 3- Cultivation assures regular and constant
supply can be sufficient to market needs.
28. • 4- Cultivation allows producers to apply different
methods for improvement of the gained crude drug by
controlling certain factors:
• a- Treatment of seeds before sowing to ensure
germination and exclusion of defective seeds i.e. soaking
Hyoscyamus seeds in dilute sulphuric acid fasten
germination.
• b- The use of fertilizers which can provide cultivated
plants with certain essential elements as N, K and P
which can increase the produced active constituents.
• c- The use of certain insecticides and pesticides help
control of insect’s infestations.
29. The disadvantages of collection of crude
drugs from cultivated medicinal plants
are:
• 1- The high cost of production when applied
on small scale while economic only when
carried on large scale.
• 2- Some medicinal plants require particular
habitat for their growth and the procedures
of their cultivation usually gain failure.
• i.e. Cannabis requires tropical climate
production of narcotic resin while Aloes
require a heavy rainfall.
30. • For successive cultivation of medicinal plants
and production of crude drugs with quality, it
is necessary to study the conditions under
which medicinal plants flourish in their wild
state and trying to reproduce these conditions
or improve them.
31. Factors affecting plant growth and
production of crude drugs
• Classified into:
1- Environmental factors:
• Including water, light, temperature, altitude, etc.
2- Soil and soil contents:
• Including plant nutrients, macro-elements and
micro-elements, active elements, inactive
elements, organic matter and living organisms.
• 3- Growth Regulators.
• 4- Genetics and plant tissue culture.
32. 1- Environmental Factors:
• a- Water:
• Importance of water:
• 1- It is an important component of the cell
which is the building unit for every living
creature.
• 2- It is a vital factor in all biological reactions
and transformations in living beings, it can act
as medium, catalyst, part of the biological
reaction or even end product of it.
33. • b- Temperature:
• Temperature divides the world into various zones and
plant growth is greatly affected by temperature.
• The effect of temperature on the reaction of the plant
which is finally expressed in its effect on the plant
growth as a whole.
• It has a great effect on on seeding
i.e as temperature is increased, the rate of growth is
increases until an optimum value is reached, above
which further increase in temperature leads to a
decrease in growth rate.
• This is due to the fact that chemical reactions, in
general, increase in rate as temperature is increased,
but as it is still further increased, other reactions, such
as heat denaturation and protein inactivation
predominates.
34. • For each plant, growth is designated by three
temperatures:
- The minimum temperature
- The optimum temperature
- The maximum temperature
c- Altitude:
• It affects the growth of medicinal plants.
• In general, the highest temperature are
experienced near the equator, and temperature
falls with elevation
• i.e Jamaica to have a tropical climate on the coast
and a temperat one in the mountains so sugar
can be cultivated at the coast as it is a lowland
plant while Tea can be cultivated at elevations.
35. • d- Light:
• Plants vary in the amount and intensity of the
light which they rquire.
• The effects of light intensities on the growth
of plants are related mainly to the role of light
in “Photosynthesis”.
• ‘Photoperiodism’:
• defined as the response of plants to the length
of day, or correctly, to the relative length of
day and night.
36. Plants classified into three broad
photoperiodic classes with respect to
their flowering behavior:
• 1- Short-day plants:
• These plants flower only when the daily period of
illumination is shorter than a particular critical length
i.e. Tobacco.
• 2- Long-day plants:
• These plants flower only when the daily period of
illumination exceeds some critical duration i.e. Dill.
• 3- Day-neutral plants:
• These plants flower under any of a wide range of day
lengths i.e. Capsicum.
37. • “Plant nutrients and/or Plant Manures”
• Soil is a mosaic of rock particles, plant roots,
micro-organisms, decaying organic matter
(humus), aqueous soil solution and
interconnecting air passages.
• Soil is a store house of water and minerals
required for growth of plants.
• Soil differs from one another both in physical and
chemical properties.
2- Soil and soil contents
38. • “Absolute water capacity”
• The amount of water which remains in a soil
after any excess has drained away.
• The air capacity of a soil is inversely
proportional to water capacity.
• i.e. Sandy soil are very permeable while clays
possess a high power of absorbing water.
39. Organic Manures
• Manure is a mixture of organic matter, which is
composed mainly of plant remains put under
animals in the stable and ultimately mixed with
the animal urine and other animal excretions and
some of the stable soil.
• Importance of manures:
• 1- Manures are used as fertilizers.
• 2- They block the soil particles together and
improve conditions of growth i.e. organic matter
in soil takes up and holds water in the same ways
as a sponge holds water.
• 3- Manure is of value as a source of nutrient
elements, especially nitrogen.
40. Essential elements commonly supplied by
the soil are divided into 4 groups:
• 1- Main nutrients or Macro-elements:
• Involving nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).
• Commercial fertilizer containing one of these elements is
called a simple fertilizer and if containing all of them, a
complete.
• N.B.:
• - Deficiency of (N) produces stunted yellow colour
(chlorosis).
• Deficiency of (P) reduction of plant size and deep green
colour.
• Deficiency of (K) reduction of carbohydrate synthesis.
41. • 2- Active elements:
• Involving calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
• The little amount of which increases plant
growth, but more than adequate amount has
no effect on plant growth.
• 3- Inactive elements:
• Involving sodium, aluminum, silicon and
iodine.
• They have negligible effect on plant growth.
42. • 4- Micro-elements:
• Involving iron, boron, copper, manganese,
zinc, cobalt, lead and molybdenum.
• These are needed within very minute amounts
for plant growth while any rise in this amount
has poisonous effect on plants.
43. 3- Plant growth regulators
• Growth and development of plants is regulated by a
number of chemical substances, which together exert a
complex interaction to meet the needs of the plant.
• Five groups of plant hormones are well established
they are:
-Auxins
- Gibberellins (GA)
-Cytokinins
- Abscisic acid and its derivatives
- Ethylene
44. • They are: - specific in their action,
- active in very low concentrations
• Regulate: - cell enlargement,
- cell division,
- cell differentiation,
- organogenesis,
- senescence and dormancy
• Some are classified as growth regulators while
others as growth inhibitors.
• Growth stimulators: i.e. auxins, gibberellins (GA)
and cytokinins
• Growth inhibitors: i.e. abscisic acid and its
derivatives and ethylene
45. Growth stimulators
• a- Auxins:
• The most important natural one is 3- or β-indole
acetic acid (IAA).
• Typical effects of auxins are:
• 1- Stimulates the growth (cell elongation).
• 2- Ovary growth: IAA alone is not always
sufficient to promote fruit growth but GA may be
needed.
• 3- Cambial activity: the ratio of IAA and GA is
important in determining whether phloem or
xylem tissues were formed by the cambium.
46. • 4- Effects on the formation of secondary
metabolites
• i.e. seedlings and young plant of Mentha piperita
when treated with IAA, gave in the mature plants
an increased yield (30-50%) of oil which itself
contained more menthol.
• 5- The main practical uses of auxins are:
- Low concentrations accelerate rooting of woody
and herbaceous plants.
- Higher concentrations act as selective herbicides
or weed killers.
47. • b- Gibberellins:
• About 40 gibberellins are now known, in higher
plants they are synthesized in leaves and
accumulated in immature seeds and fruits.
• They have the following effects:
• 1- Induce flowering at earlier stages.
• 2- Increase the length of the dwarf varieties of many
plants.
• 3- effects on secondary metabolites
- Volatile oils in case of Citrus, Mentha and many
umbelliferous fruits, the amounts of volatile oils
variably increased
48. - Alkaloids: Belladonna, Hyoscyamus and
Nicotiana produced more alkaloids.
- Glycosides: The total glycosides in Digitalis
were increased.
• c- Cytokinins:
• It is the cell division hormone.
• Their effects are:
• 1- Cell division.
• 2- Cell differentiation and morphogenesis (ratio
of cytokinin/auxin).
• 3- They have inhibitory effect on senescence.
49. Growth Inhibitors
• a- Abscisic acid:
• It is widely distributed in plants.
• It acts by antagonizing GA, blocking synthesis of
DNA and enzymes.
• It induces seed dormancy and inhibits shoot
growth and helps to withstand draft conditions.
• b- Ethylene:
• It was demonstrated that ethylene evolved by
stored apples inhibited the growth of potato
shoots enclosed with them.
50. II- Collection of Crude Drugs
• Qualitative and quantitative composition of
plants may change greatly during the course
of growing season, time of the day and stage
of maturity.
• To ensure maximum quality of a crude drug, it
must be collected at a proper stage of
development.
• The active constituents may be distributed in:
• All parts of the plant or
• Concentrated in certain organs or
• In specific tissues of these organs.
51. Factors affecting collection of medicinal plants:
• 1- Time of the year:
• The active constituents of medicinal plants
vary quantitatively and qualitatively througout
the year.
• Examples:
• a- Rhubarb contains no anthraquinones in
winter but contains anthranoles, which on
arrival of warm weather converted by
oxidation to anthraquinones.
52. • b- Colchicum corms is almost free of
bitterness and almost devoid of colchicine in
autumn and is full of starch, so it is collected
at the end of the autumn and used by the
farmers of Austria as food instead of potatoes,
but in spring and early summer it is bitter due
to high colchicine content and hence should
be collected for medicinal use.
53. • 2- Time of the day:
• Affects both the therapeutic value and activity of
medicinal drugs.
• It is an important factor in determining the
concentration of active constituents in medicinal
drugs.
• Examples:
• a- Digitalis leaves collected in the afternoon
contain more glycosides than those collected in
the morning.
• i.e the active glycosides undergo hydrolysis to
physiologically less active aglycones during the
night and recombine with sugars during day-time.
54. • b- Solanaceous leaves have higher alkaloid
content when collected in the morning than
those collected in the afternoon.
• 3- Stage of maturity and age of the
plant:
• The quality and quantity of the active
constituents depend on the stage of maturity
and age of the medicinal plants collected.
55. • Examples:
• a- Santonica flowers are most rich in santonin,
when they are unexpanded and when they
start to open, the santonin content starts to
decrease due to light oxidation to yield
inactive photo-santonin.
• b- Solanaceous leaves contain higher alkaloid
content when the plant is in the flowering
stage.
56. • Certain Pharmacopeias specify the time and
stage of collection of certain important drugs
as they should be collected when they are
containing the highest amount of active
principles and they will have better
appearance when dried.
• Example E.P. 1984 specified that: Lobelia herb
must be collected towards the end of the
flowering stage.
57. General rules for collecting crude drugs
are as follows:
Leaves
• They are collected at the beginning of the
flowering stage when they contain the
optimum percentage of their active
constituents.
• Collection must be done in dry weather as wet
weather causes deterioration and
discoloration during drying.
58. • Methods of collection varies according to the
medicinal plant:
• Senna leaves: the whole plant is cut and the
leaves are picked off after drying in the sun.
• Digitalis leaves: are gathered directly from the
plants.
• Coca leaves are gathered directly from the
plants when nearly ready to fall from the
stem.
59. Flowers
• Collection of flowers must be carried out in
fine dry weather in order to fix the colour of
the product.
• Generally flowers are gathered just at the time
of pollination and before the formation of
fruits.
• Exceptions are:
• Cloves and Santonica are collected in bud
stage.
• Chamomile flower are collected just after full
expansion.
60. Barks
• It is usually done in the spring or in early
summer when the cambium is active and the
bark can be easily stripped off from the trunk
and branches.
• Longitudinal incisions are made at intervals,
round incisions are made of the stem and the
bark is stripped off in long pieces.
61. Fruits
• Fruits are collected near the ripening stage
• i.e. when they are fully grown but not
completely ripened.
• Seeds are collected when mature
• i.e. they are separated from the pericarp.
Seeds
62. • Include: Roots, Rhizome, Bulbs and Corms.
• Generally they should be collected in autumn
or winter after removal of aerial parts and
before the vegetative process starts.
Underground organs
63. • Include: Resins, Gums, Latex,….etc.
• They are usually collected in dry weather.
• Unorganized drugs are usually natural
secretions such as beeswax and myrrh or
derived from parts of plants or animals by
some process as:
• 1- Incision, e.g. Opium and Gum Tragacanth.
• 2- Decoction, e.g. Agar and Gum Arabia.
• 3- Expression, e.g. Olive oil.
Unorganized drugs
64. Different methods used for preparation of
crude drugs before drying
• After collection of crude drugs, many of them
need distinct procedures for preparation before
drying.
• i.e. cleaning, grabling, decortication, bleaching
and sometimes curing.
• Examples:
• De-cortication of Cinnamon bark
• Cinnamon bark present as a very thin bark in
small quills, compound quills showing
longitudinal yellow lines marking the pericycle
fibers on the outer surface due to removal of the
outer layers (cork and cortex).
65. • The official appearance gained by
decortication process, which is done for the
following reasons:
• 1- lack or existence of low percentage of
active constituents in the outer parts.
• 2- Present of unrequired constituents in the
outer tissues
• i.e. bitter substance which alter its sweet
taste.
66. Bleaching of Ginger and Nutmeg:
• Bleacjhing alters the appearance of certain
drugs when they are being prepared for the
market, i.e. Ginger and Nutmeg.
• Coating with a layer of inert substance such as
CaCO3 or CaSO4 for preservation purposes.
• Curing of certain drugs:
• It is a process of inducing some desirable
changes in the drug after collection and
before drying by enzymatic action.
67. • Examples:
• Tea Leaves: curing is done to set free soluble
caffeine and oxidize tannin into insoluble
products.
• Vanilla pods: curing is done to set vanillin
free.
68. III- Drying of Crude Drugs
• Fresh plants usually contain high percentage of
moisture (up to 80 or 90 %).
• The duration of drying process varies from few
hours to many weeks.
• Importance of drying of crude drugs:
• 1- drying stop the enzymatic action that might
change the active constituents, i.e. to fix the
active constituents.
• 2- Drying help in avoidance of deterioration of
crude drugs upon storage by preventing the
growth of micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi).
69. • 3- Drying of crude drugs facilitate packing and
storage and decreases transportation cost as
the weight of the drug is greatly reduced.
• 4- Careful drying is also essential to obtain
drugs which:
- Retain their physical characters.
- Retain their chemical constituents.
- Fulfill the Pharmacopoeial requirements for
maximum moisture content.
70. Factors affecting drying process
Temperature Time
• The duration of drying varies from few hours to
several weeks depending on the structure and
water content of the drug.
• Drying process should reduce moisture content
of the drug below its critical threshold level.
71. Methods of drying
Natural drying Artificial drying
Sun Drying Shade Drying
Direct fire
Stove
Drying champers
Vacuum drying
Freeze drying
" Lypophilization"
72. 1- Natural Drying:
• It is the use of climatic heat.
• i.e. -the drug is dried by exposure to direct sun
- spreading in the shade by putting on the
floor or mats or trays in a single layer and as
drying proceeds drugs are turned over
• Whether the drug is dried in the sun or shade
it is protected from moisture and so it is
covered at night or in periods of rain.
73. • Sun drying
• Used for those items which are not
affected by direct action sunlight.
• Shade drying
• Used when it is desirable to retain the
natural color of the drug and preserve its
sensitive active constituents.
74. • Physical Drying
- carried out by the use of elevated
temperature and/or decreased pressure
(vacuum) or the use of radiation of infrared or
radiofrequency wavelength.
• Chemical Drying
- carried out by the use desiccants.
2 - Artificial Drying:
75. • Drying with artificial heat is generally the most
acceptable method when skillfully operated
• The heat should be such as to maintain an
efficient temperature for vaporizing the moisture
but not high to affect the constituents of the
drug.
• And the ventilation such as to efficiently utilize
the heat units in the air and then remove the
moisture-laden air at the time of saturation.
• When heat and ventilation are properly
controlled, the plant material is thoroughly dried
and produces a drug of maximum quality both in
the constituents and appearance.
76. Advantages of artificial drying:
• 1- immediately stops enzymatic action
• i.e. in Digitalis leaves the natural moisture
content of the leaf is sufficient to cause an
enzymatic hydrolysis of the cardiac glycosides
as soon as the leaf is harvested, if the leaves
are allowed to dry naturally, a very rapid
hydrolysis if these glycosides occur.
77. • 2- is a rapid method, usually done at a well
controlled temperature.
• i.e. rapid drying, not only prevents the
decomposition of active principles but also
retains the color of the drug.
78. Artificial heat may be applied by:
• 1- Direct fire.
• 2- Use of heated stones.
• 3- Use of stoves, these must be done carefully
to prevent the damage produced to drugs
when dried i.e. burning.
• 4- Drying sheds or chambers.
• 5- Drying ovens.
79. • 6- Pneumatic high speed drying is applied for
sensitive drugs.
• i.e. Digitalis. The drug is dried by exposure to high
temperature (800°C) for a fraction of a second
under reduced pressure.
• 7- Freeze Drying (Lypophilization)
• It is an extreme form of vacuum drying, in which
the water is frozen and drying takes place by
subliming the solidified ice-phase where very low
temperature and high vacuum are used.
80. Precautions for drying different plant
organs:
• 1- Leaves:
• must be dried as quickly as possible to retain
their fresh green color and prevent decomposing
of their active constituents.
• i.e. Digitalis leaves must be dried rapidly in
vacuum ovens at 60°C.
• 2- Flowers:
• must be dried rapidly at low temperature in
shade or in drying chambers to retain their
colour.
81. • 3- Fruits and seeds
• are spread on trays and dried in sun or shade.
• 4- Barks, large roots and rhizomes
• Dried in the sun and rhizomes are generally
sliced transversely or longitudinally to
facilitate drying.
82. Changes encountered in crude drugs
during drying:
• 1- Size and weight
• due to loss of water where drugs get smaller in
size and lose 80 – 90 % of their original weight.
• 2- Shape and appearance
• Some drugs shrivel and shrink when dried and
the surface get wrinkled or reticulated.
• i.e. Black pepper on drying shows polygonal
reticulations.
83. • 3- Texture:
• Fresh organs are generally firm on drying, drug
become harder.
• i.e. leaves brittle and horny for drugs containing
starch “gelatinization”.
• 4- Color:
• On drying the drug becomes darker in color but in
certain cases a total change may occur.
• i.e. Tea leaves change from green to dark brown
almost black.
84. • The green color of certain drugs changes to
brown on drying due to decomposition of
chlorophyll either by the influence of the
acidic sap or of heat and oxygen.
• 5- Odour:
• In certain drugs drying changes the natural
odour.
• i.e. Digitalis and Hyoscyamus loose their bad
odours when dried while vanilla pods are
odourless when fresh and on drying acquire a
fragrant, pleasant, aromatic odor due to the
liberation of vanillin which has a nice aroma.
85. • 6- Taste:
• The taste of the drug may be altered.
• Gentian is very bitter when fresh and becomes
pleasant on drying.
• 7- Constituents:
• Constituents of some drugs may change due
to drying.
• i.e. fresh vanilla pods contain the glycosides
gluco-vanillin and gluco-vanillic alcohol on
drying hydrolysis of both glycosides and
oxidation of acid to vanillin occurs.
86. IV- Packing of Crude drugs
• Importance of packing of crude drugs:
• 1- Packing provides protection against dust,
micro-organism and insects attack.
• 2- Packing is economic as it reduces the space
required during storage and shipment.
87. • Effect of packing on appearance:
• The various ways of packing usually affect the
appearance of the drug.
• i.e. Indian Senna leaves are packed into large bales,
using hyraulic pressure resulting in the leaves being
flatter and showing faint oblique or transverse
markings where the midribs and margins of their
leaves have been impressed.
• Packing also may give indication to the geographical
source and port of transport of the drug.
• i.e. Opium, which is the dried latex from the unripe
capsules of Papaver somniferum L. Opium is collected
principally in Turkey, Yugoslavia, India and China by
incising the capsules in various ways and using various
instruments.
88. • Turkish opium occurs in sub-cylindrical cakes
about 9 cm high and 14 cm in diameter coated
with coarsely powdered poppy leaves, giving
them a greenish motted appearance.
• Indian opium is imported in 5 kg blocks wrapped
in 2 sheets of thin grease proof paper and tied
with tape and placed in polyethylene bags.
• Persian Opium occurs in brick shaped cakes, each
wrapped in red paper sometimes in form conical
masses and short sticks.
89. V- Preservation and protection of
crude drugs
• Crude drugs are subjected to many hazards at all
stages in their path from the living plant or
animal to their ultimate use in pharmacy.
• Storage represents the last stage in in the
handling of crude drugs before being used and it
is a most important stage.
• Drugs usually deteriorate either slowly or rapidly
in the time of storage with few exceptions such as
Cascara and Frangula barks which shouldn’t be
used except after a certain period of time.
90. • Certain Pharmacopoeias give well, clear
instructions concerning time of storage, after
which drugs shouldn’t be used.
• i.e. Digitalis, Ergot and Cannabis for their
active constituents decompose and they get
less active.
91. • The general undesirable changes which may
occur on storage are:
• a- Aromatic drugs usually lose their aroma.
• b- Drugs containing fixed oils may be rancid.
• c- Volatile oils may be thickened and
resinified.
• d- Examples:
- Digitalis leaves may lose their activity.
- Ergot may acquire a dis-agreable odor.
92. For these reasons, Pharmacopoeias clear
instruction for storage of crude drugs,
they must be stored:
• 1- In well closed containers.
• 2- Protected from light, moisture and dust.
• 3- At low temperature.
• 4- Protected from insect infestation.
93. The principle factors responsible for
deterioration of crude drugs may be
Physico-chemical Factors Biological Factors
a- Moisture
b- Light
c- Temperature
d- Air
a- Bacteria & fungi
b- Mites and Nematodes
c- Insects
d- Rodents
94. 1- Physicochemical factors
a- Moisture
• Dried drugs stored in the usual containers
reabsorb about 10 % or more of moisture and
are termed air dried.
• Moisture may cause:
• 1- Hydrolysis of active constituents by
enzymes.
• 2- Growth and nourishment of bacteria and
fungi.
95. To overcome the effect of hydrolysis
stabilization of the drug may be carried:
• a- Temporary stabilization:
• Can be done by enclosing dehydrating agent
as lime or calcium chloride in the container of
the stored drug.
• b- Complete stabilization:
• Can be done by destroying enzymes.
• Subjecting the fresh drug to alcohol vapors or
immersing them in alcohol.
96. b- Light:
• Any reaction needs a certain energy level which
may be provided by light radiation leading to
photochemical reactions.
• Light may affect delicate drugs having color.
i.e. - Rose petals are red when fresh and changing
to brown on exposure to light.
- Digitalis leaves lose its activity more rapidly in sun
light.
- To avoid the these effects of light, stored in the
dark or by the use of opaque or amber colored
glass containers.
97. c- Temperature:
• The rates of biological processes are
accelerated by raising the temperature.
• A slight raise in temperature above the normal
will activate the enzymatic action or include
molecular rearrangements.
• Drugs directly affected with the rise in
temperature are those containing volatile oil
such as clove and chamomile.
98. d- Air:
• Oxygen of air has a definite oxidation effect
on the active constituents of some drugs
leading to lowering the quality of the product.
• In some cases oxidative changes are required
to produce the required active constituents,
i.e. Frangula bark.
99. 2- Biological Factors:
a- Bacteria and fungi
• Sufficient moisture content is essential for
bacterial or fungal infestation.
• Fungi usually attack drugs rich in nutritive
substances such as roots and rhizomes if they
are not stored properly.
• Bacterial and fungal infestation may change
the physical properties of the drug such as
color and texture.
• The presence of fungi is indicated by their
hyphae.
100. b- Mites and Nematodes:
• Mites belong to the spider group.
• recognized under the microscope by having
four pairs of legs and oval body.
• They are visible by the naked eye.
• Nematodes belong to the group of round
worms.
• Mite sand Nematodes may attack the wheat
flour and belladonna stems.
101. c- Insects:
• The dried drugs and their powder form are
susceptible to attack by insects which render
them unstable for preparation of standard
extracts.
• Insects should be destroyed before storage of
drugs by one of the following methods:
• 1- Heat treatment
• 2-Fumigation
• 3- Liming
• 4- Freezing
102. • 1- Heat treatment:
• is done by exposing crude drugs to
temperature 60-65 °C which can kill the
insects as well as their eggs.
• Disadvantages:
• - not suitable for thermo-labile constituents.
• i.e. if heating affects the active constituents of
the drug.
103. • 2- Fumigation:
• Includes use of volatile insecticides in closed
areas such as carbon disulphide.
• Disadvantages:
• Has to be repeated at intervals is its dose isn’t
sufficient to kill eggs.
104. • 3- Liming:
• Done by dipping the crude drug in freshly
slacked lime or sprinkled with quick lime
which will block the respiratory system of
insects and larvae.
• Liming is used with few drugs as Ginger and
Nutmeg.
• 4- Freezing:
• By subjecting the drug in refrigerator.
105. d- Rodents:
• Rodents are rats and mice can attack crude
drugs during storage if they are stored in
paper, cloth, card-board or wooden
containers.
• Rodents attack can be prevented by storing in
glass, plastic or metal containers and/or the
use of rodenticides (e.g. alpha-naphthyl-
thiourea).
107. 1- Primary Metabolites:
a- Starch:
• Starch is the most important carbohydrate
present in the plant cell.
• It is formed by accumulation of glucose
molecules formed during photosynthesis.
• It is a polysaccharide of glucose units with the
general formula (C6H10O5)n.
• Starch consists of two molecules:
• 1- Amylopectin (80%): is a branched sugar
insoluble in water.
• 2- Amylose (20%): is a linear chain of glucose
units soluble in water
108. • Special chemical test for Starch:
Starch suspension + dilute iodine solution
Blue color
• Uses of Starch:
• 1- Dusting powder due to its absorbent
properties.
• 2- Skin emollient (in mucilage forms).
• 3- Antidote for Iodine poisoning.
• 4- Suspending agent and tablet disintegrants.
110. b- Proteins:
• are complex nitrogenous compounds of high
molecular weight.
• Chemically: polypeptides of amino acids.
• i.e. mixtures of amino acid units joined
together by peptide linkages through
elimination of water.
• Stored by the plants usually in the form of
amorphous masses or small paricles called
Aleurone grains.
111. • Microscopical chemical tests for proteins:
• 1- Millon’s reagent
stains proteins red on warming
• 2- Picric acid
stains proteins yellow
• 3- Iodine solution
satins proteins yellowish brown
112. c- Fixed oils and Fats
• Esters of long chain fatty acids of high
molecular weight.
• i.e. Stearic and Oleic acids and glycerol.
• Being either solids or liquids depends on the
proportion of esters of saturated (solid
i.e.Stearic acid) or unsaturated (liquid i.e Oleic
acid) fatty acids.
• In plants they are abundant in fruits and seeds
113. Characters of fixed oils and Fats
• 1- lighter than water,
- greasy in touch
- leave permanent stains on paper.
• 2- Insoluble in water and alcohols except
castor oil (soluble in alcohol).
• 3- Soluble in ether, chloroform and petroleum
ether.
• 4- Stain red with Sudan III.
114. • 5- Easily saponified by aqueous solution of
KOH yielding glycerol and salt of acids (soaps).
• 6- Fixed oils are liquids at normal temperature
(glycerides of unsaturated fatty acid).
• 7- Fats are solids or semisolid glycerides of
saturated fatty acids.
115. • Uses of Fixed oils and Fats:
• 1- Nutritive use.
• 2- Pharmaceutically as solvents in
intramuscular injections.
• 3- Preparation of soaps, Liniments, Plasters.
• 4- Laxatives, Demulcents and emolients.
116. 2- Secondary Metabolites:
a- Crystals
• i- Calcium oxalate:
- produced in plant tissues as detoxifying
products for the toxic by product oxalic acid.
- exhibit certain diagnostic shapes which can be
considered as key elements for the natural
drugs containing them.
117. Forms of Calcium oxalate Crystals
a- Prisms: - Quillaia bark,
- Hyoscyamus leaf,
- Liquorice
119. • Special Arrangement of Calcium oxalate:
• Crystal sheath:
- Group of fibers ensheathed with parenchyma
membrane, each cell containing one calcium
oxalate prism. i.e. Liquorice.
• Crystal layer:
• Group of parenchyma cells, each cell
containing calcium oxalate cluster.
• i.e. Stramonium
120. ii- Calcium carbonate:
- embedded in or incrusted in the cell wall in
the form of concentrations found on
outgrowths of the cell wall and termed
cystoliths.
- i.e. Cannabis
- Special chemical tests:
- CaCO3 dissolves with effervescence in dilute
acids.
- i.e. dil. HCl
121. iii- Hisperidin and Diosmin:
• Crystalline masses of diosmin are present in the
epidermal cells of buchu leaves.
• These crystals are insoluble in organic solvents
but soluble in KOH.
• iv- Silica:
• Occurs as incrustation on cell walls or masses in
the interior of cells.
• i.e. Silica nodules can be found in the
sclerenchyma layer of cardamom seeds.
122. b- Tannins:
• Phenolic substances present in the plants.
• Able to combine with protein of the animal hides,
prevent their putrification and convert them to
leather.
• Are high molecular weight compounds.
• Many of them are glycosides
• Have astringent effect
123. • Tannins are classified into two main groups:
• a- Hydrolysable tannins (Pyrogallol tannins)
• i.e. tannins in galls, Cloves, Pomegranate.
• b- Condensed tannins (Catechol tannins)
• i.e. tannins in Cinnamon, Cinchona, Tea.
• Special chemical test:
• Hydrolysable tannins bluish black
• Condensed tannins greenish black
FeCl3
FeCl3
124. c- Volatile Oils:
• constitutes the most important odorous
principles in various parts of the plant.
• They are secreted with several secretory
structures, i.e. Cells , glands, ducts, hairs
which give red color with Sudan III.
• Insoluble in water.
• Soluble in alcohol.
• Can be stem distilled without decomposition.
• Chemically they are mixtures of hydrocarbons
and oxygenated compounds.
125. • Volatile oils are mostly used as flavoring
agents, in perfumery and carminative while
some volatile oils have therapeutic uses as:
a- Volatile oil of Buchu (urinary tract antiseptic).
b- Volatile oil in Chenopodium (anthelmintic).
c- Volatile oil in Eucalyptus (anti-rheumatic).
126. d- Alkaloids:
• are organic nitrogenous substances basic
compounds.
• Derived from natural origin.
• Have marked physiological activities.
• Are bitter crystalline substances, but some are
liquids.
i.e. Nicotine in tobacco
Coniine in Hemlock
• Have different structural formulae according
to the nature of the basic chemical structures
(i.e. non-heterocyclic structure).
127. • Chemical classification of alkaloids:
• 1- Phenyl ethylamine
i.e. Ephedrine (Sympathomimetic).
• 2- Tropane
i.e. Atropine (Para-sympathomimetic).
• 3- Phenantherine
i.e. Morphine (narcotic analgesic).
• 4- Quinoline
i.e. Quinine (anti-malarial).
• 5- Indole
i.e. Ergotamine
• 6- Purine
i.e. Caffeine (CNS stimulant).
128. • Chemical tests for Alkaloids:
• Most alkaloids are precipitated by the
following reagents:
• 1- Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric
iodide).
• 2- Wagner’s reagent (iodine/potassium iodide)
• 3- Dragendorf’s reagent
129. e- Glycosides:
• are non-reducing substances.
• Bitter tasted solids.
• Soluble in water and alcohol.
Hydrolysis
By acids or enzymes
Aglycone
(non-reducing character)
Glycone (sugar)
(reducing character)
Glycosides
130. • Classification of Glycosides:
1- Phenolic Glycosides:
i.e.
a- Hydroquinone glycosides
b- Flavonoids (flavus means yellow colored)
c- Anthraquinone glycosides
d- Coumarin glycosides
hydrolysis
Phenolic aglycone + different sugars
131. 2- Cardiac glycosides
• Chemically:
steroidal aglycones
+ unsaturated lactone ring + 2-deoxy sugars
O
R1
OH
R2
O
O
3
19
12
14
23
17
16
18
OO
OO
OO
O
H3C
H3C
H3C
OH
HO
HO
OH O
OH OH
CH3
O
1
4
1
4
3
4
132. • Uses:
- heart tonics (cardiotonics).
- treatment of auricular fibrillation
- treatment of cardiac arrhythmia.
• Cardiac glycosides are two types:
• a- Cardienolides (contain 5-membered
lactone ring).
• b- Bufadienolides (contain 6-membered
lactone ring).
133. • Chemical tests of cardiac glycosides:
1- Baljet’s test
2- Kedde’s test
for lactone ring
3- Liberman’s-
Burchard test
for steroidal
ring
4- Keller-
Killiani test
for Deoxy-
sugar
134. 3- Saponin Glycosides
• produce permanent froth in aqueous solutions.
• have hemolytic properties (i.e. cause blood
hemolysis).
• Classified according to the sapogenin obtained:
• a. Steroidal Saponins (C27) i.e. Dioscorea, Digitalis
• b. Triterpenoid Saponins (C30) i.e. Quillaia, Ginseng
Sapogenin + suagrs
(aglycone)
Saponins
hydrolysis
135. 4- Cyanogentic Glycosides
• yield HCN (hydrogen cyanide) as one of the
products of hydrolysis.
• can be detected in plants by the HCN reaction
with sodium picrate paper (yellow)
red color due to the formation of sodium iso-
purpurate
i.e. Linamarin in Linseed.
136. 5- Thioglycosides or Sulphated or
Thiocyanate Glycosides
• yield allyl isothiocyanate as one of the
hydrolytic products.
• used as condiments and counter irritant
• i.e. Sinirgin in Black mustard.
Sinalbin in White mustard.
137. Adulteration of Natural Products
• Adulteration occurs when the drug is:
- scarce
- expensive
Types of adulteration:
1- Sophistication (True adulteration).
2- Substitution 3- Admixture
4- Inferiority 5- Deterioration or spoilage
6- Addition of worthless heavy materials.
7- the presence of adventitious materials within the
drug.
8- Addition of waste products of suitable color or
density to the powdered drug.
138. 1- Sophistication or True adulteration:
• The addition of spurious or an inferior
material to any article with intends to defraud.
• Examples:
• Addition of wheat flour to powdered ginger
with enough capsicum to restore or enhance
the pungency and enough curcuma to
maintain the color.
• Small masses of flour dough molded to the
correct size and shape of ergot, and colored by
dipping first in red ink and then writing ink.
139. • Nutmeg has been imitated by cutting pieces of
basswood to the required shape or by molding
a mixture of clay and leguminous meal.
• Coffee has been imitated by compressing
powdered chicory to the shape of coffee
beans.
• Pieces of string dipped in red ink have been
substituted for Saffron or addition of safflower
(American saffron).
140. 2- Substitution:
• Replacement of the original drug by the
adulterant, i.e. an entirely different article used.
• Different ways of substitution:
a- Substitution by inferior commercial varieties
Examples:
- Capsicum minimum fruits and chilies C.annum
fruits.
- Safflower for safron.
141. • b- Substitution by exhausted drugs
• Examples:
• Preparation of volatile oils from cloves or from
umbelliferous fruits such as fennel and
caraway, the ungrounded drug is used and the
dried exhausted material closely resembles
the genuine drug.
• Coloring matter of saffron and red rose petals
when removed during exhaustion, the residue
is colored by artificial dyes as is done with.
142. • c- Substitution by superficially similar but
cheaper natural substances which usually
having no relation to genuine drugs.
• Examples:
• Peach Kernels and Apricot kernels for
Almonds.
• Clove stalks and mother cloves are mixed with
cloves.
143. 3- Admixture
• It is the addition of one article to another
through accident, ignorance or carelessness but if
that addition has been done intentionally to
defraud, it is sophistication.
• Admixture may occur through faulty collection
i.e. collecting the drug not at the proper time,
collection of other parts of the same plant,
collection from other plans by mistake or
ignorance of collectors (Argel instead of Senna).
144. 4- Deterioration
• It is the impairment of the quality of the drug by
the abstraction or destruction of valuable
constituents by distillation, extraction, aging,
moisture, heat, fungi and/or insects.
• Examples:
• Powdered Squill hardened through absorption of
moisture.
• Coffee which lost its caffiene through over
roasting.
• Ergot which is moldy.
• Rhubarb that has become wormy.
145. 5- Spoilage
• It is a form of deterioration in which the
quality or value or usefulness of an article is
impaired or destroyed by the action of fungi
as to render the drug unfit for human
consumption.
146. 6- Inferiority
• Can be defined as any substandard condition for
any cause.
• Examples:
• The dried seeds of Nux vomica, containing less
than 1.15 % strychnine would be inferior or
substandard drug.
• Addition of synthetic material to fortify inferior
products such as adding citral to lemon.
• Addition of benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru is
considered an adulteration.
147. 7- Addition of worthless heavy
material
• Addition of large masses of stones in liquorice
bales.
• Addition of lead shots in pieces of Opium.
• Addition of mineral, vegetable oils, glycerin or
ammonium nitrate to saffron.
• 8- the presence of adventitious matter
naturally with the drug.
148. 9- Addition of waste products of suitable
color or density to powdered drugs
• Examples:
• It is generally powdered waste products of a suitable
color and density that are used.
• Addition of powdered olive stones to drugs like
powdered liquorice and Gentian, powdered Guaiacum
wood to Nux vomica.
• Addition of hazel nut shells to cinnamon, exhausted
ginger to Ginger, bran.
• Addition of saw dust to powdered Ipeca.
• Addition of red sanders wood to chillies.
• N.B. if the color of the adulterant needs adjustment, it
is sometimes done by roasting it till the tint is matched.
149. Evaluation of Crude Drugs
• It includes:
• 1- Identification of crude drugs.
• 2- Determination of its quality and purity.
• For each official crude drug, there are limits
for its quality and purity listed in its
monograph (the specified pages of the
Pharmacopoeia describing the drug).
150. • The identity is established by:
Collecting it from a plant that is positively
identified.
Comparing it with a preserved sample
(herbarium) that is previously identified.
Comparing the unknown drug with a
published description of authentic drug
sample.
151. • The quality of crude drugs refer to its active
constituents as:
- Carbohydrates
- Volatile oils
- Glycosides
- Alkaloids
152. • High quality crude drugs is gained through
collecting it keeping in mind the following
considerations:
1- Correct authenticated natural source.
2- Correction at the proper time, stage of
development using proper manner.
3- Proper cleaning and drying processes.
4- Proper protection of it and of its samples
against insects, fungi, dirt and moisture.
153. • Targets for crude drugs evaluation:
Investigation of biochemical variation in the
drug.
Detection of and deterioration due to
treatment and storage.
Determination of purity of the drug i.e.
substituted or adulteration.
154. • Steps of evaluation of crude drugs :
a- Morphological or organoleptic evaluation.
b- Microscopical investigation.
c- Chemical evaluation.
d- Biologic evaluation.
e- Physical evaluation.
155. a- Morphological or organoleptic evaluation:
• The term organoleptic evaluation refers to the
sensory evaluation.
• The characteristics which are evaluated with
the help of sense organs such as color, odor,
taste, texture…….etc.
• The sensory characters of organized as well as
unorganized drugs give the idea about the
quality of the drug.
156. • b- Microscopic evaluation:
• Microscopical investigation of unorganized
drugs in an important parameter for the
evaluation.
• For the faster and finer transverse sections
microtome is used which gives very high
degree of thinness with the reproducible
results.
• Very fine sections are selectively subjected to
staining reactions with various staining
reagents for study of chemical nature of the
cellular organization.
157. • Important staining reagents as:
Phloroglucinol and hydrochloric acid for
lignified tissues.
Chloro-zinc iodide reagent for cellulosic
tissues.
Tincture of alkannol for subrised or
cuticularized walls.
Ruthenium red for gums and mucilage
containing cells.
158. • Another important aspect of microscopical
evaluation is the study of surface constants.
• The leaf constants like stomatal number,
stomatal index, palisade ratio, vein islet and
vein termination number are studied by using
camera lucida.
• These constants are used for the detection of
their adulteration.
159. • c- Chemical evaluation:
It comprises of different chemical tests &
chemical assays.
Preliminary phyto-chemical screening is a part
of chemical evaluation for establishing
chemical profile of drugs.
Isolation, purification and identification of
active constituents are chemical methods of
evaluation.
160. • d- Biological evaluation:
• Includes the quantitative assay of the drugs using
biological models of intact animals, animal
preparations, isolated living tissues or micro-
organisms.
Bioassy: is the assay of pharmacologically active
substances by using biological means yields
valuable information about the potency of the
drug.
- When the intact animal is used for the bioassy,
the specific strains of experimental animals may
be used.
- i.e. rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs,
pigeon….etc., are commonly used experimental
animals.
161. Micro bioassay:
- is a type of biological assay specially
preformed with micro-organisms, i.e. bacteria
and fungi.
- In a typical microbiological assay, evaluation is
performed on the various cultures of micro-
organisms and the activity is represented on
the basis of average response of a large
population of micro-organisms.
- The micro bioassay procedures are used for
vitamins like Niacinamide, Calcium
pantothenate and Vitamin B12…..etc., for the
evaluation of potency of antibiotics.
162. Chemical examination of plant
constituents
Alkaloids
Mayer’s test Dragendorff’s reagent
Hager’s reagent Wagner’s reagent
174. Cell Wall Chemical Impregnations
Cutin
Lignin
Suberin
Hemi-cellulose
Chitin
175. • These tissues change into other tissues on
development, examples:
Meristimatic tissue:
is characterized by the following:
- Small, thin walled cuboidal closely arranged
cells.
- Multiply by the process of cell division.
- The cells without intercellular spaces.
- Newly formed cells may become
differentiated into mature permanent tissues.
I-Temporary tissues
176. • Located:
- near tips of roots
- in buds at tips of stems (apical meristems)
- between wood and bark of trees.
- model joints of such plants as grasses.
- and wherever extensive growth occurs.
• Apical Meristem:
- involved in primary plant body.
i.e.: - protoderm develop to give epidermis.
- procambium give xylem and phloem.
- ground meristem develop to give cortex,
pitch which give rise to primary plant tissues.
177. • Lateral Meristem (Secondary Tissue):
• Vascular cambium develops into xylem and
phloem
• Cork cambium develops into phellogen,
periderm, cork and cork parenchyma.
178. • usually don’t change into other kind of tissues
• In most cases retain their structure and
functional characteristics throughout life.
• Simple tissues:
• formed of one kind of cells mainly constructed
similarly and performing one kind of function.
II-Permanent tissues
179. • 1- Epidermis (epi- : upon, derma: skin):
- usually one cell thickness where cells are
usually colourless.
- Guard cells which control gas movement
through epidermal pores called (Gr. Stoma
opening).
- Possess chlorophyll in bodies called
chloroplasts.
- Outer cell walls often coated by a waterproof,
waxy cutin (cuticle).
180. • Exceptions:
• a- Epidermal cells of roots have extensions
called root hairs.
• b- Some epidermal cells are modified i.e.
exhibit secretory function.
• c- Some epidermal cells of the plant parts
have epidermal hairs above ground form
outgrowths of one or several cells.
181. • 2- Ground tissue:
• a- Parenchyma; (Greek, para-: besides, en- in,
chin: pour):
• consists of thin walled cells that are
approximately isodiametric
• e.g. not much longer than they are wide.
• The individual cells may be spherical, cubical,
many sided or irregular in shape, they contain
living protoplasm and retain their property of
cell division even tough division may never
occur after the cells are mature.
182. • The presence of living protoplasm also means
they can function in the storage of water and
food, or in photosynthesis and even secretion,
in wound healing
• They are found abundantly in higher plants in
roots, stems, leaves, fruits and flowers.
• Green chlorophyll bearing parenchyma cells of
leaves and green stems are called
chlorenchyma.