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The purpose of this investigation was to; (a) examine what experienced SPCs perceived to be the necessary components of the sport psychology consulting relationship, and (b) examine individual contributions of the SPC and client to the... more
The purpose of this investigation was to; (a) examine what experienced SPCs perceived to be the necessary components of the sport psychology consulting relationship, and (b) examine individual contributions of the SPC and client to the consulting relationship. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit 10 experienced SPCs (8 male and 2 female, M age = 50.44 years, M years consulting experience = 21.67 years) who held current sport psychology accreditation/certification and who had considerable consulting experience. Following individual interviews, extensive content analysis revealed that the sport psychology consulting relationship was reflective of (a) rapport, (b) respect, (c) trust, (d) a partnership, and (e) a positive impact on the client. Members of the consulting relationship made individual contributions to the relationship; SPCs contributed; (a) honesty, (b) commitment, (c) knowledge and expertise, (d) counseling skills, and (e) professional ethical behavior. With clients con...
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Two studies were conducted to assess strategies elite coaches use to enhance self-efficacy in athletes, in particular the degree to which coaches use 13 strategies to influence self-efficacy and their evaluation of the effectiveness of... more
Two studies were conducted to assess strategies elite coaches use to enhance self-efficacy in athletes, in particular the degree to which coaches use 13 strategies to influence self-efficacy and their evaluation of the effectiveness of those strategies. Self-efficacy rating differences between categories of coaches were also examined. Intercollegiate wrestling coaches (iV=101) surveyed in Study 1 indicated they most often used instruction-drilling, modeling confidence oneself, encouraging positive talk, and employing hard physical conditioning drills. Techniques or strategies judged most effective by these coaches included instraction-drilling, modeling confidence oneself, liberal use of reward statements, and positive talk. In Study 2, 124 national team coaches representing 30 Olympic-family sports served as subjects. The strategies they most often used were instruction-drilling, modeling confidence oneself, encouraging positive talk, and emphasizing technique improvements while do...
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The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether the relationships between contextual factors and basic psychological needs were related to antisocial and prosocial behaviors in sport. A two-study project employing Bayesian path... more
The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether the relationships between contextual factors and basic psychological needs were related to antisocial and prosocial behaviors in sport. A two-study project employing Bayesian path analysis was conducted with competitive athletes (Study 1, n = 291; Study 2, n = 272). Coach and teammate autonomy-supportive climates had meaningful direct relations with need satisfaction and prosocial behaviors. Coach and teammate controlling climates had meaningful direct relations with antisocial behaviors. Need satisfaction was both directly and indirectly related with both prosocial and antisocial behaviors; while moral disengagement was directly and indirectly related with antisocial behaviors. Overall, these findings reflected substantial evidence from the SDT literature that autonomy-supportive motivational climates are important environmental influences for need satisfaction; and are important correlates of prosocial behavior in sport. Whe...
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We examined whether constructs outlined in self-determination theory
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This case study focused on the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team during the period from 2004 to 2011, when Graham Henry (head coach) and Wayne Smith (assistant coach) coached and managed the team. More specifically, this case study... more
This case study focused on the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team during the period from 2004 to 2011, when Graham Henry (head coach) and Wayne Smith (assistant coach) coached and managed the team. More specifically, this case study examined the motivational climate created by this coaching group that culminated in winning the Rugby World Cup in 2011. In-depth interviews were completed with Henry and Smith in March 2012. A collaborative thematic content analysis revealed eight themes, regarding motivational issues and the motivational climate for the 2004–2011 All Blacks team: (i) critical turning point, (ii) flexible and evolving, (iii) dual-management model, (iv) “Better People Make Better All Blacks, ” (v) responsibility, (vi) leadership, (vii) expectation of excellence, and (viii) team cohesion. These findings are discussed in light of autonomy-supportive coaching, emotionally intelligent coaching, and transformational leadership. Finally, practical recommendations are offered fo...
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Covid-19 lockdown restrictions constitute a population-wide “life-change event” disrupting normal daily routines. It was proposed that as a result of these lockdown restrictions, physical activity levels would likely decline. However, it... more
Covid-19 lockdown restrictions constitute a population-wide “life-change event” disrupting normal daily routines. It was proposed that as a result of these lockdown restrictions, physical activity levels would likely decline. However, it could also be argued that lifestyle disruption may result in the formation of increased physical activity habits. Using a longitudinal design, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in physical activity of different intensities, across individuals who differed in activity levels prior to lockdown restrictions being imposed, and across three time periods: pre-, during- and post-lockdown. This study also examined the extent to which the experience of daily hassles explained any changes in physical activity. A convenience sample (N = 759) recruited through social media, provided data from an online survey administered during weeks 2–3 of a 5-week lockdown and 231 participants provided complete data again 6 weeks post-lockdown (72% female,...
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The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual’s decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what... more
The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual’s decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what people think about when creating their affective forecast for exercise. Thirty-one inactive participants provided an affective forecast for a moderate intensity exercise session using the global affective forecast questionnaire. Immediately after, they were asked a series of questions to verbally explain what they were thinking about in order to generate their forecast. Thematic analysis identified four themes relating to the exercise intensity, the exercise outcomes, the exercise environment, and the enjoyment of exercise that influenced affective forecast creation. Exercise practitioners should design strategies to manipulate these factors, and structure exercise environments to support a positive affective forecast and better motivate exercise pa...
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Abstract Objectives Flow states may explain motivation for continued participation in adventure recreation (e.g., skydiving, kayaking). This review aimed to identify what is known about flow states that occur during adventure recreation.... more
Abstract Objectives Flow states may explain motivation for continued participation in adventure recreation (e.g., skydiving, kayaking). This review aimed to identify what is known about flow states that occur during adventure recreation. Design Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Method A systematic search of 10 databases (e.g., SPORTdiscus, PsychINFO) yielded 93 potentially relevant articles out of 9468 screened titles and abstracts. The thematic synthesis approach was used to appraise and synthesise 20 empirical articles, which fulfilled a priori eligibility criteria. Results The findings from this review are based on insights gathered from 1179 adventure recreation participants. Participants were rock-climbers, surfers, mountaineers, kayakers, skydivers, ski jumpers, and adventure racers. The synthesis resulted in four analytical themes: antecedents and inhibitors of flow, characteristics of flow, consequences of flow, and conceptual differences. Adventure recreation may provide opportunities to experience flow in a unique context. For example, this review found that flow experiences can be influenced through immersion in nature and a desire to control and reduce risk. Conclusions A central finding of this review of research that spanned from 1975 to 2019 is that flow, in the context of adventure recreation, is currently more descriptive than explanatory. Furthermore, evidence for flow in adventure recreation relies extensively on correlational and qualitative designs. Recommendations for future research include making use of quasi-experimental designs and emerging technologies for measuring psychophysiological indicators of flow.
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The aims of this investigation were to; (a) explore the ethical challenges that sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have experienced in their applied practice, and (b) examine the engagement of SPCs with monitoring and supervision of... more
The aims of this investigation were to; (a) explore the ethical challenges that sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have experienced in their applied practice, and (b) examine the engagement of SPCs with monitoring and supervision of their applied practice. Ten experienced SPCs participated in individual interviews. Following content analysis, two categories of ethical challenges faced by SPCs emerged: (a) challenges to boundaries and (b) communication issues. Four subcategories emerged in relation to SPC engagement in the supervision of their practice: (a) supervision is essential, (b) supervision enabled SPCs to monitor boundaries, (c) supervision helped SPCs to feel supported, and (d) supervision aided SPCs to get to know themselves and care for themselves. Lay summary: This investigation aimed to explore the ethical challenges that sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have experienced in their applied practice in elite sport and to examine the engagement of experienced SPCs with monitoring and supervision of their applied practice. Results highlighted that SPCs faced challenges to boundaries and communication issues in their applied practice. While highlighting that supervision was an essential component of applied practice that enabled SPCs to monitor boundaries of applied practice, aided SPCs to get to know themselves and care for themselves, feeling supported in their applied practice at the same time.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the constituent processes of psychological flexibility (contact with the present moment, acceptance, cognitive defusion, self-as-context, value clarification, and committed action)... more
The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the constituent processes of psychological flexibility (contact with the present moment, acceptance, cognitive defusion, self-as-context, value clarification, and committed action) in supporting physical activity (PA) maintenance. A total of 9 physically active participants were interviewed using the Scanlan collaborative interview method. Participants were asked to discuss their strategies for maintaining PA, before being asked whether the 6 psychological flexibility processes played a role in their PA behavior. Data were analyzed using a combination of deductive and inductive thematic analyses. Acceptance, cognitive defusion, value clarification, and committed action played a role in participants’ experiences of maintaining PA. Contact with the present moment and self-as-context were reported to be relatively unimportant to participants’ PA maintenance. Cultivating acceptance of PA-related discomfort, defusion from unhelpful...
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This study examined the relationships among coaching style (autonomy-supportive, controlling), athlete motivation (autonomous, controlled), sport commitment (enthusiastic, constrained), and intention to continue in sport. Participants... more
This study examined the relationships among coaching style (autonomy-supportive, controlling), athlete motivation (autonomous, controlled), sport commitment (enthusiastic, constrained), and intention to continue in sport. Participants were 154 competitive football/soccer players (M = 22.21 years). Partial least squares structural equation modeling revealed positive associations among adaptive motivational (autonomy-supportive coaching style, autonomous motivation) and commitment (enthusiastic) variables. Similarly, positive links were found among maladaptive motivational (controlling coaching style, controlled motivation) and commitment (constrained) constructs. In addition, results indicated differential relationships between enthusiastic and constrained dimensions of commitment and intention to continue. Findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical and practical implications. Lay Summary: This study investigated the relationships among motivational factors (coach interpersonal style; athlete motivational orientation), commitment perceptions toward sport, and intentions to continue in sport (n = 154; M = 22.21 years). Overall, findings highlighted the important combined role of both commitment and motivation in understanding and explaining athletes' sport continuation
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Research Interests: Sociology, Positive Psychology, Outdoor Recreation, Adventure Tourism, Leisure, and 8 moreAdventure Sports and Tourism, Tourism, Flow - Positive Psychology, Psychology and Outdoor Education, Adventure Based Training, Sport Psychology and Adventure Education, Outdoor Education and Sport Psychology, and Commercial Services
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The present investigation was designed to develop a profile of the coaching education background and self-perceived coaching education needs of elite U.S. amateur sport coaches. In all, 130 national team, Pan American, and/or Olympic... more
The present investigation was designed to develop a profile of the coaching education background and self-perceived coaching education needs of elite U.S. amateur sport coaches. In all, 130 national team, Pan American, and/or Olympic coaches representing more than 30 U.S. Olympic structure sports were surveyed. Results revealed that the coaches were extremely interested in coaching education workshops and seminars, initiating mentor coach programs for potential elite coaches, and participating in a variety of coaching science courses. Few consistent differences were found between the various categories of coaches (individual vs. team sport, open vs. closed sport, experienced vs. inexperienced, male vs. female, and physical education degree vs. non physical education degree) in terms of their coaching education background and needs. Implications for university based coaching education efforts are discussed.
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Sport psychology consulting with athletes who are from an indigenous ethnic group presents some challenges and opportunities that do not typically need to be considered when consulting with nonindigenous athletes. Māori1 are the... more
Sport psychology consulting with athletes who are from an indigenous ethnic group presents some challenges and opportunities that do not typically need to be considered when consulting with nonindigenous athletes. Māori1 are the indigenous ethnic group of New Zealand. To work as a sport psychology consultant with Māori athletes and indeed any indigenous athletes (e.g., Tahitian, First Nation Canadian Indian) it is important for the sport psychologist to have an understanding of Te Ao o Nga Tāngata Whenua (indigenous worldview) and tīkanga Tāngata Whenua (indigenous cultural practices; Hanrahan, 2004; Schinke & Hanrahan, 2009; Tuhiwai-Smith, 1999). Both research and practice in the social sciences regarding Māori people seek to use a Kaupapa Māori (Māori research and practice platform) approach. Kaupapa Māori attempts to ensure that cultural sensitivity is infused from the conceptualization of an intervention (e.g., psychological skills training, psychological intervention) through t...
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This investigation examined the current use and status of sport psychology in New Zealand. National coaches (n=46) and elite athletes (n=68) completed appropriate questionnaires that assessed their perceptions of sport psychology. They... more
This investigation examined the current use and status of sport psychology in New Zealand. National coaches (n=46) and elite athletes (n=68) completed appropriate questionnaires that assessed their perceptions of sport psychology. They also indicated the importance of and the success they felt they had in changing and/or developing 21 psychological skills. Finally they were asked about their actual use of sport psychology and any problem areas. A general definition of sport psychology was given and sport psychology was rated by both coaches and athletes as being very important. Most coaches and athletes reported using it regularly. A positive response was received, with virtually all coaches and most athletes indicating they would be interested in having a sport psychologist work with them. Implications of the results are discussed and future research and practical recommendations are made.
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The present investigation examined athletes’ responses to a psychological skills training program spanning a 3-month period. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the degree to which a week-long psychological skills training program... more
The present investigation examined athletes’ responses to a psychological skills training program spanning a 3-month period. Two studies were conducted to evaluate the degree to which a week-long psychological skills training program changed elite wrestlers’ knowledge, perceived importance, and use of relaxation, visualization/imagery, goal setting, and mental preparation techniques. In Study 1, 18 senior elite wrestlers ranging from 17 to 32 years of age participated in a week-long training camp involving a psychological skills training program and completed assessments immediately before and after camp and again 3 months later. Study 2 was identical to Study 1 except that 33 elite junior wrestlers, ages 14 to 18, were studied. Overall, the results demonstrate that the educational program was effective in changing the athletes’ knowledge, perceived importance, and use of the four psychological skills. MANOVA procedures revealed that the relaxation and visualization/imagery portions...
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This investigation compared cluster analysis with the mean-split procedure for examining goal-orientation profiles and examined whether the goal-profile groups revealed differences in athletes’ perceptions of their physical abilities.... more
This investigation compared cluster analysis with the mean-split procedure for examining goal-orientation profiles and examined whether the goal-profile groups revealed differences in athletes’ perceptions of their physical abilities. Rugby players (N = 257, mean age = 20.62 years, SD = 3.64) completed a questionnaire assessing goal orientation, perceived rugby ability and competence, and self-concept of physical ability. Unlike the mean-split procedure, in which scores are forced into high/high, high/low, low/high, or low/low groups, cluster analysis revealed groups that varied in low-, moderate-, and high-task and -ego goals. Moreover, no extreme group profiles (high-ego/high-task or low-ego/low-task) emerged when cluster analysis was used. Multivariate results from the cluster analysis revealed that Cluster 4 (low-ego/moderate-task) reported significantly lower levels of perceived rugby ability/competence than did Cluster 3 (high-ego/moderate-task), indicating that ego might be t...
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The purpose of this study was to compare participant responses to a questionnaire delivered via the Internet with data collected using a traditional paper and pencil format distributed via postal mail. Athletes (N = 214, mean age 26.53... more
The purpose of this study was to compare participant responses to a questionnaire delivered via the Internet with data collected using a traditional paper and pencil format distributed via postal mail. Athletes (N = 214, mean age 26.53 years) representing 18 sports from the New Zealand Academy of Sport were randomly assigned into two groups and completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001). There was a noticeable trend (p = .07, two-tailed) toward a better response rate in the online group (57.07%) compared with the postal group (46.63%). Furthermore, online questionnaires were returned faster and contained fewer missing responses. A series of nested, multigroup confirmatory factor analyses indicated that there were no significant group differences in the factor structure or latent mean structures of the ABQ.
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In this exploratory study, we examined hypothesized antecedents (basic psychological needs) and consequences (dispositional flow) of athlete engagement (AE); plus the extent to which AE mediated the relationship between basic needs and... more
In this exploratory study, we examined hypothesized antecedents (basic psychological needs) and consequences (dispositional flow) of athlete engagement (AE); plus the extent to which AE mediated the relationship between basic needs and flow. Structural equation modeling with a sample of 201 elite Canadian athletes (60.20% female, mean age = 22.92 years) showed that needs satisfaction (particularly competence & autonomy) predicted athlete engagement (30% explained variance); and needs satisfaction and athlete engagement predicted dispositional flow (68% explained variance). AE partially mediated the relationship between needs satisfaction and flow. Practical suggestions are offered for needs-supportive coaching programs designed to increase both AE and flow.
Research Interests: Psychology and Sport
This study was designed to assess the psychological principles used by coaches and to determine if various categories of coaches differed in the psychological skills and strategies they employed. Intercollegiate wrestling coaches (N=101)... more
This study was designed to assess the psychological principles used by coaches and to determine if various categories of coaches differed in the psychological skills and strategies they employed. Intercollegiate wrestling coaches (N=101) completed an extensive survey that assessed their opinions concerning the importance of, use of, frequency of problems arising with, and degree of success they feel they have had in changing or developing 21 psychological skills. Descriptive statistics revealed that the psychological attributes of mental toughness, positive attitude, individual motivation, and attention-concentration were judged to be most important for success in wrestling. Anxiety-stress control, attention-concentration, lack of confidence, and mental toughness were reported as the areas in which wrestlers most frequently experienced problems. The coaches indicated that the strategies most easily developed with their athletes were goal setting, team cohesion, and mental practice-i...
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Objectives: The purpose of this investigation was to examine experienced sport psychology consultants’ (SPCs) perceptions of the role of peer support and supervision within their applied practice.Design: A qualitative research design was... more
Objectives: The purpose of this investigation was to examine experienced sport psychology consultants’ (SPCs) perceptions of the role of peer support and supervision within their applied practice.Design: A qualitative research design was utilised.Method: A purposeful sampling method was used to recruit 10 experienced accredited SPCs (8 male and 2 female; 5 British, 1 Swedish, 1 Austrian/American, 3 American; M age = 50.44 years; M years consulting experience = 21.67 years) who provided psychological support to elite athletes competing in major national and international events in a range of team and individual sports (e.g., track and field athletics, basketball, curling, football, gymnastics, hockey, sailing, shooting, diving, winter sports, wrestling). SPCs participated in individual semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with the primary investigator that lasted between 70 minutes to 90 minutes and yielded 188 single-spaced pages of data. Results: A thematic content analysis approach was employed to search for common themes across all case data. Results emphasised the place of supervision and peer support as an essential tool to monitor, expand insight, support, and to gain perspective on themselves and their practice. Results highlighted variety in frequency, structure, and the challenges faced in maintaining peer support and supervision while working at elite sport competitions. Conclusions: Despite the extensive experience of these 10 participants; SPCs believed that peer support and supervision were essential to maintaining effective and ethical practice. The place of supervision and peer support should be considered by all practitioners working within applied sport psychology.
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... Lloyd, RJ, & Trudel, P. (1999). Verbal interactions between an eminent mental training consultant and elite level athletes: A case study. ... Possibilities for qualitative research in sport psychology. ... Beyond a... more
... Lloyd, RJ, & Trudel, P. (1999). Verbal interactions between an eminent mental training consultant and elite level athletes: A case study. ... Possibilities for qualitative research in sport psychology. ... Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. ...
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The use of computer software as an aid to rugby, and sports coaching in general, is well established. Videoed sport is the most widely used form of raw data for sports analysis, though it is currently not being used to its full potential.... more
The use of computer software as an aid to rugby, and sports coaching in general, is well established. Videoed sport is the most widely used form of raw data for sports analysis, though it is currently not being used to its full potential. Patterns of player movement and position, both for individuals and groupings of players, are important for understanding the complexities of professional team sports, and yet are not being adequately addressed. This paper outlines a project that aims to support coaching and/or commentary by measuring the similarity of video-derived spatio-temporal information, and enabling timely access to relevant video clips. Specifically, methods by which a user of spatio-temporal sports software can pose a query will be discussed. Two issues are examined: user interface form and how it enables efficient query construction; and powerful spatio-temporal representation techniques for rugby constructs (such as the pitch, players and amalgamations of players: team, scrum, line out, back line).
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Sport Motivation covers all the bases for achieving excellence in sport, treating the mind as an essential part of sport training. It presents chapters on the skills and methods of Psychological Skills Training (PST), anxiety and peak... more
Sport Motivation covers all the bases for achieving excellence in sport, treating the mind as an essential part of sport training. It presents chapters on the skills and methods of Psychological Skills Training (PST), anxiety and peak performance, self-confidence, motivation and mental toughness, coping with pressure, communication and team-building, concentration, psychological rehabilitation from injury, goal-setting, planning a total training programme and using training worksheets. This revised and fully updated edition is illustrated with photos, diagrams and tables, and making use of numerous case studies from sporting heroes such as Sir Edmund Hillary, Dame Susan Devoy and Lance Armstrong. Sport Motivation's content and style is suitable for athletes and coaches of all ages and at all levels.