Feray Koca

ABSTRACT Karabağlar (Muğla, Turkey) is one of those settlements that over time has come to blend well with its natural assets. Not only are the man-made and natural components of this seasonal settlement unique, and in harmony with one another, but they have also persisted throughout the centuries despite much adversity. Previous research has revealed how two landscape components particular to the area, namely irim and kesik, have resulted in a remarkable character. Further inquiry into other aspects of Karabağlar will help in the depiction of its original layout, taking into account the wealth of landscape elements and structures that have a couple of millennia, or more, of historical precedent. The originality of the spatial layout of a yurt setting, the lifestyle that is generated around a coffeehouse, in addition to a masjid and plane trees, all deserve attention as a system of diverse values worthy of conservation.

Abstract A very particular set of landscape components, namely the irim and the kesik, found in the peri-urban rural area called Karabaglar, are considered. This area is in the contiguous land of the city of Mugla, in southwestern Turkey, and is administered by its municipality. It has a rural character, yet also includes summerhouses for the inhabitants of the city. Physical resemblance of the irim and the kesik to the hedgerow suggests similar functions, but a closer look reveals that they have a wider range of features and aspects. Functioning not only as a marker of agricultural land sub-divisions, they also play an important role in the hydrology of the area. While their specific traditional features can be used in designed landscapes, the intention here is, first, to introduce the irim, the kesik and the very special setting offered by Karabaglar, which are now under the pressure of urban encroachment. A comparison with the hedgerow is nevertheless useful in order to better understand related aspects and features.

Günümüzde aşınmaya başlayan “yönetim” kavramı, yerini toplumsal eşgüdümün sağlandığı “iyi yönetişim” anlayışına bırakmakta. Etkileşim içinde olduğumuz mekânlar üzerinde kararlar alınırken, doğrudan etkilenenler olarak içinde yer alma ve yapabilme hakkı kazanma isteği ise katılım ihtiyacını ortaya çıkarıyor. Yazar, Karabağlar Yaylası örneği üzerinden katılımcı bir yönetişimsel yapıya geçiş sürecinden kesitleri ortaya koyuyor.

Historical cartographic materials provide us with significant evidence not only about the evolution of spatial setting in a city and region, but also conception of it from different worldviews. In this context, Bodrum, the site of ancient Halicarnassus in the Eastern Mediterranean, can be considered as a perfect laboratory for the observation of this evolution and conceptions owing to the availability of a number of historical maps belonging to the different eras and traditions. By revealing four mapping traditions for elaboration of the historical cartographic materials available for Bodrum, the study re-read the history of Bodrum city with reference to, on the one hand, the evolution of spatial configuration of the old and remarkable buildings in the city, and on the other hand, the manifestation of the different world views and conceptions, which is realized by employing a two-folded lens that reformulates history as cartography while contextualizing cartography as history. Geore...

Los sistemas socio-ecológicos evolucionan en ciclos de adaptación ecológica aumentando la resiliencia de los lugares. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar los procesos de diseño e implementación del Proyecto de Área de Actividades y Cine al Aire Libre que se aplica en uno de los valles del Campus Principal de la Universidad Mugla Sitki Koçman. El proyecto se realizó utilizando el enfoque de ecodiseño como método de diseño y planificación basado en los conceptos de panarquía y transecto, que tienen sus raíces en los estudios de Patrick Geddes. Los criterios adoptados para el diseño del área del proyecto fueron determinados por el proceso de levantamiento, análisis y diseño en el marco de las oportunidades que ofrece el entorno en la interacción de la naturaleza y el ser humano. De acuerdo con los criterios básicos de diseño, se completó la fase de aplicación del proyecto y se puso en servicio el Cine al Aire Libre y el Área de Actividades.

Karabaglar is a rural area where agricultural community lives and which locates in the vicinity of Mugla town. It was registered as third grade natural site that must be preserved according to its rural character, natural and cultural assets and rural life. Property pattern consisting of private ownerships (yurts), specific road network that emerges from irims and kesiks, traditional houses, variety of vegetation, abundant water, self-sufficient agricultural production, and traditional life style are the main features that create and shape Karabaglar. Kesiks, irims, kabaliks, and yurts are the major man-made components, which are unique to Karabaglar, and these characteristics conform to the natural landscape structure. Urban growth, interventions due to misuse of lands, new housing demands of urban residents in Karabaglar resulted in urban pressure on the area. This situation puts forth the conservation necessity of Karabaglar. This research analyzes the speculative housing develop...

Historic cultural landscapes consist of pattern of layers reflecting mutual interaction of the local people with the land through time. They have material and immaterial traces of collective practices of the initial inhabitants and a local culture. Traditional determinist approach has a tendency to split material and immaterial, natural and cultural values and evaluate them separately. However, the concept of cultural landscape has been arisen as a criticism against this duality and distinction and thereafter landscapes started to be regarded as cultural representations that are shaped by both natural and cultural values. This article explores the historic cultural landscape of Karabağlar Yaylası in a rural-urban continuum in search of preservation strategies regarding changing relations with modernization and urbanization. Karabağlar Yaylası is a semi-urban and semi-rural settlement close to Muğla city centre. The seasonal migration and socio-economical interdependency have been tw...

ABSTRACT Karabağlar (Muğla, Turkey) is one of those settlements that over time has come to blend well with its natural assets. Not only are the man-made and natural components of this seasonal settlement unique, and in harmony with one another, but they have also persisted throughout the centuries despite much adversity. Previous research has revealed how two landscape components particular to the area, namely irim and kesik, have resulted in a remarkable character. Further inquiry into other aspects of Karabağlar will help in the depiction of its original layout, taking into account the wealth of landscape elements and structures that have a couple of millennia, or more, of historical precedent. The originality of the spatial layout of a yurt setting, the lifestyle that is generated around a coffeehouse, in addition to a masjid and plane trees, all deserve attention as a system of diverse values worthy of conservation.

‘Bağ’ settlements have been a part of dynamic spatial systems, which seasonally depend on and reciprocally interact with Anatolian towns throughout centuries. This thesis presents the transforming setting of ‘bağ’ settlements related to changing values and meanings through an ontological assessment. Therefore, the thesis assumes that the main values of spatial organization, farmland pattern, ecological formation, settlement character, socio-cultural structure and lifestyle of the inhabitants constitute the unique entity of ‘bağ’ settlements. In time, the pressures of changing socio-economic conditions have destroyed the interaction between Anatolian towns and ‘bağ’ settlements. The thesis explains the changing role of ‘bağ’ settlements, changing and conflicting land uses and the loss of unique ‘bağ’ character in the case of Muğla-Karabağlar. Karabağlar is a ‘bağ’ settlement in the southwestern Turkey, where Muğla town residents live seasonally. It is a third grade natural site, the unique character, the natural and cultural assets and the lifestyle of which must be preserved. However, with transformation of the main values, meanings and practices, Karabağlar could no longer perpetuated its initial existence of being. Karabağlar is significant for two reasons: it has natural and cultural beings that need to be conserved, and as it still goes through a transformation process. The master’s thesis of the author evaluated conservation plan of Karabağlar. Differently, this doctoral thesis evaluates the dynamics of the spatio-temporal transformation process in Karabağlar. It presents the changing role and significance of Karabağlar within the town-country continuum. This situation brings forward the conservation problematic of the character, landscape and uniqueness of Karabağlar. Within this respect, the thesis contributes to the literature of ‘bağ’ settlements in terms of defining their being and changing role throughout the history.Ph.D. - Doctoral Progra

The climate change crisis stemming from anthropogenic reasons has triggered severe weather events and disasters all over the world in recent years. In this context, the main purpose of the paper is to reveal the importance of ecological memory in the face of the wildfires threatening our living spaces and taking place between 29 July-12 August 2021 throughout Muğla Province, and to divulge basic strategies for the future of the region by questioning the resilience of ecosystem. The damage caused by wildfires are determined by using satellite images and remote sensing methods in GIS. Accordingly, the borders of burned areas were determined by using mainly remote sensing data according to the degree of burn severity on the basis of NBR. In turn, these borders were overlapped with CLC data and administrative borders at different scales for determination of the land cover types of the burned areas and the urban areas affected. Subsequently, the actual surface areas of the burned regions...

Pers istilalarindan sonra, Halikarnassos, antik Karya’da Hekatomnid iktidarinin ikinci baskenti olmasi acisindan onemlidir. Hekatomnid donemin, kent planlama anlayisi bakimindan en onemli ozelligi, iktidarin gucunu ve kontrol yetkisini kent planina yansitmasidir. Ayni zamanda yerel bolgeyi Helenlestirerek kucuk yerlesim birimlerini bir araya getirip Halikarnasos kent devleti altinda birlestirmeyi basarmistir. Bu nedenle; Karya’da, Pers ve Yunan etkileri altinda kent planlama anlayisinin gelistigi gozlemlenmistir. Halikarnassos kenti, Helenistik donemin planlama anlayisina hakim olan ortogonal planlama bicimine uygun olarak sekillenmistir. Ancak, binalarin olagandisi yerlesimi ve teraslar halinde yer almasinin temel nedeni Hekatomnid iradesini ve hakimiyet alanini ortaya koymaktir. Bu calismanin amaci, Pers ve Yunan etkisinde, Hekatomnid donemin yarattigi kent planlama anlayisini Halikarnasos kent plani ve yapilari ile incelemektir.

Urban growth and speculative housing development on rural areas, especially at urban fringes cause transformation of ownership relations, deterioration of traditional pattern and landscape character. The rapid increase of population in cities necessitates new housing demands and this need is met by peripheral rural lands. This urban development process occurs as urban sprawl through rural areas. Karabaðlar is a traditional rural settlement in the vicinity of the town of Muðla and it is registered as third degree natural site. It carries unique vernacular features such as special outstanding landscape components, traditional houses that are part of the typical domestic architecture and ownership pattern that create the cultural heritage. The land-use character is based on agriculture. The misuse of lands, new housing demands of urban residents and secondary housing related with urban growth in Karabaðlar resulted in urban pressure on the area. This situation put forth the necessity o...

Özet
Pers istilalarından sonra, Halikarnassos, antik Karya'da Hekatomnid iktidarının ikinci başkenti olması açısından önemlidir. Hekatomnid dönemin, kent planlama anlayışı bakımından en önemli özelliği, iktidarın gücünü ve kontrol yetkisini kent planına yansıtmasıdır. Aynı zamanda yerel bölgeyi Helenleştirerek küçük yerleşim birimlerini bir araya getirip Halikarnasos kent devleti altında birleştirmeyi başarmıştır. Bu nedenle; Karya'da, Pers ve Yunan etkileri altında kent planlama anlayışının geliştiği gözlemlenmiştir. Halikarnassos kenti, Helenistik dönemin planlama anlayışına hakim olan ortogonal planlama biçimine uygun olarak şekillenmiştir. Ancak, binaların olağandışı yerleşimi ve teraslar halinde yer almasının temel nedeni Hekatomnid iradesini ve hakimiyet alanını ortaya koymaktır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Pers ve Yunan etkisinde, Hekatomnid dönemin yarattığı kent planlama anlayışını Halikarnasos kent planı ve yapıları ile incelemektir.
Abstract
After Persian invasions, Halikarnassos is significant in terms of being the second capital city of the Hekatomnid dynasty. The main feature of the Hekatomnid dynasty with regard to town planning approach was the reflection of the rulership and visitorial power to their town plan. In the meantime, by Hellenization of the region, they had succeeded in the foundation of Halikarnassos city-state by merging a number of small settlement units. Therefore; one can state that town planning approach had developed with the effects of Persians and Greeks in Caria. Halikarnassos had taken its form according to orthogonal planning dominating the Hellenistic planning approach. However, the main reason behind the extraordinary location of the buildings and the organization of terraces was to present the willpower and territory of the Hekatomnids' authority. The aim of this study is to investigate the town planning approach of Hekatomnid dynasty with Halikarnassos town plan and buildings.

1923 yılında Mustafa Kemal, Türkiye Cumhuriyet'ini ilan ederken bu söz-leri söylemiştir. Bu tarihten sonra demokratik ve bağımsız bir ulus-dev-let oluşturma anlayışı; yönetsel, yapısal ve toplumsal her alanda kendini göstermeye başlamıştır. Böylece, Osmanlı Anadolu'sunu çağdaşlaştırma projesinin temelleri atılmıştır. Yeni Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devleti'nin ör-gütlenmesi, ulus-devlet ideolojisine, merkezi yönetim anlayışına, hukuk devleti olmasına ve toplumsal iradenin şekillendirdiği üniter laik bir dev-let olmasına bağlı olarak oluşmuştur. Demokratikleşme yolundaki bu yeni yönetsel yapının idari birimleri vila-yetler olmuştur. Osmanlı idari yapılanmasında mutasarrıflık olan Anado-lu kentleri vilayet haline gelmiş, Ankara'nın başkentliğinde (başkent ve taşra örgütü) ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin modernleşme hareketleri doğ-rultusunda yeni çehrelere kavuşmuştur. Kurtuluş Mücadelesinin zorlu koşullarından harap bir halde çıkan Anadolu kentlerinde, kasabadan vi-layete yeniden yapılandırılmaya gidilerek imar hareketleri başlatılmıştır. Cumhuriyet rejimi, toplumun belleğinde ulus bilincini yaratmayı hedef-lediği için yönetsel ve sosyo-ekonomik alanda olduğu kadar mekânsal alanda da bir yenilenme, aydınlanma olmuştur. Bu aydınlanma halkın sosyal hayata girerken buluştuğu kent mekanında ifade bulmuştur. Yeni kent mekanı halkın yeni modern yaşam biçimine cevap verebilmeli, va-tandaşı yönlendirme gücüne sahip olmalı, aynı zamanda ulus devlet bi-linci altında toplayıcı özelliği olmalıdır. Mustafa Kemal pronounced these words while he was announcing the establishment of Turkish Republic in 1923. After this date, the understanding of creation of a democratic and independent nation-state became prevalent in every administrative, structural and social field. Thus, foundations of modernization of the Ottoman Anatolia project were laid down. Organization of the new State of the Republic of Turkey was formed depending on nation-state ideology, centralized administration, being a state of law and being a unitary secular state structured by social will. The provinces have been the administrative units of this new governance structure of the democratization process. Anatolian cities that had been governorships under Ottoman administrative structure became provinces, gained new appearances with the declaration of Ankara as capital city (capital and provincial organization) and the modernization movements of the Turkish Republic. In Anatolian cities survived desolately from difficult conditions of the Independence War, public improvements were initiated by going on reconstruction from village to province. Republic regime has been a renewal, illumination in spatial field as well as in administrative and socioeconomic field since it aimed to create a national consciousness in the collective memory. This illumination found its expression in urban space where the people get together while adapting to social life. New urban space should have responded to the new modern lifestyle of the people, had the power on orienteering its citizens and in the meantime had the feature of collecting all citizens with nation-state consciousness.

Osmanlı Devleti’nde Tanzimat Dönemi ile başlayan modernleşme reformları, hükümet konağı ve hükümet meydanı kavramlarını ortaya çıkarmıştır. O döneme kadar yöneticilerin kişisel konaklarında görülen tüm işler ihtisaslaşma sonucu dallara ayrılmaya başlamıştır. Dini nitelik taşımayan bütün işler, hükümet binalarındaki devlet dairelerinde görülmeye başlanmış, ilk defa idari merkez düşüncesi ortaya çıkmıştır. Cumhuriyet ile rejimin değişmesi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti vatandaşı için kamusal bir mekanda, yeni ve çağdaş bir idari merkez ve hükümet konağı gerekliliğini ortaya koymuştur. Bu yapılanma süreci, Anadolu’nun kasabasından vilayetine benzer şekilde yaşanmıştır. Bu makalenin amacı, Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e Muğla’da farklı mimari akımların etkisinde devletin gücünü ve otoritesini simgeleyen yapılar olarak inşa edilen iki hükümet konağının, iki farklı idari merkezin sembolü haline gelmesini ortaya koymak ve kentin formu ve yapılanması üzerindeki etkilerini değerlendirmektir.

Özet

Antik dönemde Muğla’da Karya ve Likya medeniyetleri hüküm sürmüştür. Şehir devletlerinin ve koloni kentlerin hakim olduğu bölgede şehircilik alanında mekansal ve yönetsel anlamda gelişmeler yaşanmıştır. Yerleşimlerin gelişme modelleri hakkında bilgi, günümüze ulaşan antik kentlerin kalıntılarından ve bölgenin coğrafyasının incelenmesi ile elde edilmiştir. Bu yazının amacı, Muğla ili içerisindeki bölgede hüküm sürmüş iki antik medeniyetin şehircilik anlayışını incelemektir.

Büyük Menderes Nehri ile Dalaman Çayı arasında kalan Karya Bölgesi, antik dönemde ilk defa Ege Denizi’ndeki adalardan gelen Minos ve Mikenlerin verimli ovalara yerleşmesiyle koloni devletlerin kurulmasına  tanıklık etmiştir. Karya’nın denize bağlı ilk basit yapılı şehir devletleri zaman içinde birleşerek federasyona dönüşmüştür. Persler tarafından atanan yerel yöneticilerle sosyo-ekonomik ve politik yapılanma başlamış, böylece ilk kentleşme hareketleri gözlemlenmiştir. Dağınık yerleşimlerin yerini kent merkezleri alırken ızgara plan sisteminin gelişimi ile kentler bir düzene göre planlanmıştır. Bunun Karya’daki önemli bir örneği başkent Halikarnasos olmuştur.

Dalaman Çayı’nın doğusundan başlayarak Antalya Koyu’na kadar uzanan Likya Bölgesi’nde, Yüksek Toros Sıradağları ve platolar, İç Anadolu ve kıyı arasında doğal bir sınır teşkil etmiştir. Bu nedenle, Likyalılar tehlikeden uzakta daha izole bir konumda bağımsız kent-devletlerini kurmuşlardır. Likyalılar, doğu ve batı sentezinde kendilerine özgü bir kültür ve dil oluşturmuşlardır. Karya’da olduğu gibi Persler tarafından başa getirilen yerel yöneticiler demokratik kent yönetim biçimlerini geliştirmişlerdir. Antik dönemin bilinen ilk demokratik birliğini oluşturmuşlardır ve birliğin ilk merkezi Xanthos olmuştur.

Karya, düzenli kent mekan organizasyonu, Likya ise demokratik kent yönetim anlayışı ile ön plana çıkmıştır. Bu iki medeniyet, mekânsal ve yönetsel alanda ilerleme kaydederek coğrafyayı kendi toplum yaşayışlarına göre şekillendirmiş ve özgün kentlerini inşa etmişlerdir. Bu iki medeniyetin şehircilik anlamında geride bıraktığı değerler sahip çıkılarak korunmalıdır.

Abstract

In antiquity, Caria and Lycia civilizations were dominant in Muğla. In the region where the city-states and colony cities ruled over, spatial and administrative progress had been observed in the field of town planning. Information about the development model of the settlements is gathered from the remains of ancient cities and geographical investigation of the region. The aim of this article is to search town-planning consideration of two ancient civilisations, which once ruled the region in the province of Muğla.

Caria Region, in-between Greater Menderes River and Köyceğiz Lake for the first time had witnessed colony states on fertile planes established by Minos and Mikens who came from the islands of the Aegean Sea. The marital simple-structured city-states of Caria were combined and transformed into a national federation. Local administrators appointed by Persians went on a socio-economic and political structuring; thus, the first urbanization movements had been observed. While the new city centres were taking the place of dispersed settlements, with the development of gridal plan system, cities were planned in an order. One of the significant examples of this plan system was the capital city of Caria: Halicarnassus.

In Lycia Region, from the eastern area of Dalaman River to Antalya Bay, high ranges of Taurus Mountains and plateaus form a natural barrier between the inner Anatolia and the coastal lands. Therefore, Lycians had established their independent city-states on a more isolated place far from danger. Lycians created their own culture and language by synthesizing the East and the West. As seen in Caria, local administrators appointed by Persians developed democratic city administrative styles. They constituted the first known democratic federation of which Xanthos became the first centre.

Caria came into prominence with ordered urban space organization while Lycia with democratic city administration. These two civilisations shaped the geography according to their own way of living. They constructed their distinctive cities by making progress in spatial and administrative scopes. The assets of town planning that these two civilisations left behind should be conserved.

Bir yerleşimin eşsiz form ve örüntüsü, özgün karakteri, o toplumun kültürüne göre yerleşimle içinde yaşayanlar arasındaki diyalektik etkileşim sonucunda şekillenmiştir. Toplumlar ve kültürleri değiştikçe, toplumların ortaklaşa ürettikleri kararların sonucu olan yapılı çevre de dönüşmektedir. Modernleşme süreciylebirlikte kentler yeniden üretim mekanı haline gelmiştir.
Bu durum hem toplumların ayrışmasına neden olmuş hem de
geleneksel yerleşmeleri dönüştürmüştür. Modernleşmenin akılcı
ve standartlaştırıcı mekansal uygulamaları çoğunlukla geleneksel
yerleşmelerin doğal ve kültürel değerlerini yok ederek özgün
karakterin ve örüntünün zaman içinde kaybolarak dönüşmesine
neden olmuştur. Böylece, geleneksel yerleşmelerin mevcut
örüntüsünün, sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel yapısının tarih içindeki
anlamlı rolü ile vurgulanarak korunması kentsel planlama
açısından önemli bir gündem maddesi haline gelmiştir. Türkiye’de geleneksel yerleşim örüntüleri, 20. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren modernizasyonla gelen ekonomik ve teknolojik gelişmeler sonucu farklı yaşam biçimlerine, yerleşim pratiklerine ve yapılaşmalara açık hale gelmiştir. Zaman içinde geleneksel yerleşim örüntülerinin görsel olduğu kadar, sosyo-mekansal ve kültürel karakteri kaybolmaya başlamıştır. Bu makalenin amacı, öncelikle, kültür ve fiziksel çevre arasındaki etkileşimi ontolojik yaklaşımla ele alarak karakter ve kültür mirası kavramlarını açıklamaktır. Sonrasında, modernitenin ontolojik kabulü ihmali ile başlayan sosyo-mekansal bozulmaların geleneksel yerleşim örüntülerinin varlığı üzerinde yarattığı sıkıntıları, Türkiye’deki modernizm ile dönüşen kentsel yaşam dinamiklerine paralel olarak ortaya koymayı hedeflemektedir. Özgün karakter ve kültürel mirasın korunması anlayışı kentsel planlama ve tasarım disiplinlerinin sağladığı temel birikimden yola çıkılarak ontolojik bir yaklaşımla değerlendirilecektir.

Anahtar sözcükler: Koruma; kültürel miras; ontoloji; özgün karakter;varlık.

Muğla is a town in southwestern Turkey that has for centuries been on the major trade routes. Property-society relations during the periods of the Anatolian Turkish Principalities and the Ottoman Empire have had a significant influence on the structuring of the town space, with its main evolution outside the fortress beginning in the 12th century. Neighbourhoods first began to form arbitrarily around pious structures, following no particular plan, and this was the case up until the advent of the Ottoman Era. Thereafter, it was the Ottoman administration and property system that determined and controlled the organization of space in the commercial centre, the administrative centres and the residential areas in the town for many centuries. Waqf, mülk and miri lands were the main property types of the Ottomans and their implementation had significant repercussions on the urban space and fabric of Muğla. Property relations in the town transformed the social structure of the residential districts as well as shaped the built environment. In this context, the main purpose of this article is to investigate the dynamic interaction between the property-society relations and the formation of urban space in the case of Muğla. The article begins by discussing the determining role of property relations on urban space, goes on to explain land ownership structure in the times of the Anatolian Turkish Principalities, under Ottoman rule, and in the first years of the Republic, then delves into the historical evolution of Muğla and the transformation of urban space as a result of the changing property-society relations of different historical periods, and concludes with a discussion on the main dynamics leading transformation of the urban space of Muğla during mentioned historical periods.

Karabaǧlar (Muğla, Turkey) is one of those settlements that over time has come to blend well with its natural assets. Not only are the man-made and natural components of this seasonal settlement unique, and in harmony with one another, but they have also persisted throughout the centuries despite much adversity. Previous research has revealed how two landscape components particular to the area, namely irim and kesik, have resulted in a remarkable character. Further inquiry into other aspects of Karabaǧlar will help in the depiction of its original layout, taking into account the wealth of landscape elements and structures that have a couple of millennia, or more, of historical precedent. The originality of the spatial layout of a yurt setting, the lifestyle that is generated around a coffeehouse, in addition to a masjid and plane trees, all deserve attention as a system of diverse values worthy of conservation.