José Geraldo W. Marques

This work aims to present an overview on ethnoichtiology, seen as the study of the relationships between people and fishes. Historic, theoretical and conceptual aspects constitute a focus and interdisciplinary or transdisciplinaries aspects and possibilities are also explored. A deep and accurate knowledge possessed by traditional fishermen is demonstrated by means of scientist's statements and by examples taken from the author's experience and previous works. He also proposes the existence of a patterned ethnotaxonomy among traditional fishermen. Some practical aspects such as the use of medicinal fishes are also showed.

A composição animal da mente humana, sobretudo no que diz respeito ao imaginário, é explorada neste artigo, no qual as aves merecem saliência exemplar. Utilizando-se a abordagem etnocientífica, busca-se uma integração entre a etnozoologia e a etnopsiquiatria. Exemplos de possíveis efeitos psicopatogênicos de vocalizações aviárias, sobretudo na Amazônia, são apresentados, bem como relatam se interpretações populares de efeitos terapêuticos e profiláticos que resultariam da conexão de humanos com componentes da ornis.

“Smart fish that can see at a distance”: Traditional ichthyological knowledge in the Chapada Diamantina region, Bahia. This paper examines the traditional ichthyological knowledge of a community of fishermen that live in the Marimbus-Iraquara environmental protection] area (Bahia, Brazil). Data were collected using open and semi-structured interviews and field observation. Also, zoological materials were collected. Knowledge about the behavior of 21 fish species is reported. The ethological phenomena perceived by the fishermen were divided into 17 ethological categories related to reproduction, flight behavior, predation, social behavior, or response to artificial stimuli. The results of the study indicate the existence of a broad local ecological knowledge about species and ecosystems, particularly in relation to fish species.

O conhecimento ictiológico tradicional de uma população de pescadores da Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA) de Marimbus-Iraquara (Bahia, Brasil) foi estudado neste trabalho. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas livres e semi-estruturadas, observações diretas, turnês guiadas e coletas de material zoológico. O conhecimento sobre comportamento de 21 espécies de peixes é apresentado. Os fenômenos etológicos per-cebidos e descritos pelos pescadores foram agrupados em 17 etnocategorias etológicas as quais se relacionam com: reprodução, comportamento de fuga, predação, comportamento social, ou ainda a respostas a estímulos artifi ciais. Os resultados revelam a existência de um amplo conhecimento ecológico tradicional sobre as espé-cies e os ecossistemas locais, particularmente no que se refere à ictiofauna. Abstract " Smart fi sh that can see at a distance " : Traditional ichthyological knowledge in the Chapada Dia-mantina region, Bahia. This paper examines the traditional ichthyological knowledge of a community of fi shermen that live in the Marimbus-Iraquara environmental protection area (Bahia, Brazil). Data were collected using open and semi-structured interviews and fi eld observation. Also, zoological materials were collected. Knowledge about the behavior of 21 fi sh species is reported. The ethological phenomena perceived by the fi shermen were divided into 17 ethological categories related to reproduction, fl ight behavior, predation, social behavior, or response to artifi cial stimuli. The results of the study indicate the existence of a broad local ecological knowledge about species and ecosystems, particularly in relation to fi sh species.

This study examines the traditional therapeutic use of animals or parts of animals by an Afro Brazilian population living in the Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil. The investigation was conducted over a period of eight months and consisted of open- and semi-structured interviews, photographic documentation and identification of species. Besides presenting a list of animal products and their respective use, we seek to stimulate a discussion about the possible existence of a rational basis for the belief in the therapeutic or prophylactic potential of the animal products used in the traditional medicine of Brazilian populations.

Moura, F.B.P. & Marques, J.G.W. The knowledge of traditional fishermen regarding the spatio-temporal dynamics of natural resources in the Chapada Diamantina region, state of Bahia. Biota Neotrop. Sep/ Dez 2007 vol. 7, no.3 http://www.biotaneotropica.org.br/v7n3/pt/abstract?article+bn01807032007. ISSN 1676-0603. This paper examines the traditional ecological knowledge of a community of fishermen that live in the APA Marimbus-Iraquara (Conservation Unit). The study aimed at collecting information regarding mainly local perception about the spatial and seasonal distribution of natural resources. Data were collected using open and semi-structured interviews, field observation and guided tours. Also, zoological and botanical materials were collected. The study results indicate the existence of a broad local ecological knowledge about species and ecosystems, particularly in relation to fish species. Resumo Moura, F.B.P. & Marques, J.G.W. Conhecimento de pescadores tradicionais sobre a dinâmica espaço-temporal de recursos naturais na Chapada Diamantina, Bahia. Biota Neotrop. Sep/Dez 2007 vol. 7, no. 3 http://www.biotaneotropica.org.br/v7n3/pt/abstract?article+bn01807032007. ISSN 1676-0603. O conhecimento ecológico tradicional de uma população de pescadores da APA de Marimbus-Iraquara, foi estudado visando obter informações relacionadas à percepção local sobre distribuição espacial e sazonal dos recursos naturais. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas livres e semi-estruturadas, observações diretas, turnês guiadas e coletas de material zoológico. Os resultados sugerem a existência de um amplo conhecimento ecológico tradicional sobre as espécies e os ecossistemas locais, especialmente no que se refere à ictiofauna. Palavras-chave: Chapada Diamantina; conhecimento tradicional; etnoecologia.

Mangrove are highly productive ecosystems and, therefore, they are utilized by many traditional populations that survive on shellfish’s catching and artisanal fishery, like those who live in Acupe District, located in Santo Amaro, in the west coast of the Todos os Santos Bay (Bahia State, Northeast Brazil). Many resources are exploited locally, such as a crustacean group named “siris” (swimming crabs). The objective of this work was to study the swimming crab fishery under the Marques’ comprehensive ethnoecological approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with fishermen in order to know thinkings (knowledges and beliefs) and behaviors involved in this exploitation modality. Direct observation of the informants’ daily working activities was also accomplished. The results were analyzed with a combined etic-emic approach by comparing folk and scientific knowledge. The observed traditional behaviors were correlated to possible environmental implications. It was observed that the exploitation is locally adapted to this scenario and it has, possibly, ethnoconservationist implications. The fishermen showed to have a signifcant knowledge about classifcation, trophic ecology, morphology, physiology, phenology, as well about mangrove ecosystem dynamics. In some case, this knowledge was compatible to those accepted by academic ones.
Os manguezais são ecossistemas altamente produtivos e por esta razão bastante utilizados por populações humanas que tradicionalmente vivem da mariscagem e da pesca artesanal, como é o caso da que habita o Distrito de Acupe em Santo Amaro-BA, situado na margem oeste da Baía de Todos os Santos (BTS). Entre os vários recursos utilizados, encontra-se um conjunto de crustáceos, localmente categorizados como “siris”. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo abordar a pesca desses crustáceos à luz da etnoecologia abrangente de Marques. Foram realizadas entrevistas semi-estruturadas com pescadores especialistas na sua captura, bem como com pescadores especializados em outras artes de pesca, buscando-se conhecer os pensamentos (conhecimentos e crenças) e comportamentos envolvidos na modalidade específica da pesca dos “siris”. Também foi utilizada a técnica da observação direta, acompanhando-se pescadores em suas atividades rotineiras de pesca marítima. Os resultados foram analisados sob uma ótica emicista-eticista, inclusive comparando-se os conhecimentos locais com aqueles disponíveis na literatura científica e correlacionando-se os comportamentos observados com suas possíveis implicações ambientais. Os dados obtidos evidenciaram uma forma de exploração localmente adaptada que, possivelmente, tem consequências etnoconservacionistas. Revelaram também que os conhecimentos possuídos pelos pescadores sobre morfologia, taxonomia, fisiologia, ecologia trófica e fenologia dos siris e sobre a dinâmica do manguezal são detalhados e, pelo menos parcialmente, compatíveis com os conhecimentos da comunidade científica.

(The use of Cactaceae by sertanejos in Bahia, Brazil. Connexive types to define utilitarian categories) –The use of cacti is one of the most important connections between humans and plants in the dryland region of Brazil, where they are used as food, medicines and in horticulture, amongst many other purposes. There is presently very little knowledge of this connection available in a systematic and synthetic form. Therefore, the present study aims to evaluate the literature by using a field study in five municipals in the state of Bahia: Valente, Queimadas, Santaluz, São Domingos and Canudos. Informal and semi-structured interviews were carried out with 32 local people. The interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The sample was defined after meeting the possible interviewees ad libitum, causing the increase of information to flow in a 'snow-ball' progression. This method allowed us to reach a level of exhaustive sampling through progressive inclusion of information. The cactus material collected was determined by specialists and detosited at HUEFS herbarium. The ten species identified as used locally by the 'informants' were determined as: Cereus jamacaru DC., Harrisia adscen-dens (Guerke) Britton & Rose, Melocactus salvadorensis Werdermann, Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck, Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawler) Haworth, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller Opuntia palmadora Britton & Rose, Pilosocereus catingi-cola (Guerke) Byles & Rowley, Pilosocereus gounellei (Weber) Byles & Rowley, Pilosocereus tuberculatus (Werdermann) Byles & Rowley. The analysis of the diverse uses allowed us to include them in eight of the connective types proposed by Marques: ludic, medical, mystic, economic, esthetic, domestic, erotic and trophic. The medical and trophic connections can be subdivided into direct and indirect sub-types. The use categories with largest number of species were trophic indirect [N= 10] and direct [N= 6], and medical direct [N= 7]. Connections with strong, permanent status were present [e.g. use as hedges-connection of domestic type; as ornamental plants-connection of esthetic type; commercialization-economic connection; 'white sorcery'-mystic type; as medicine-medical type] as weak, residual ones [domestic connection related to manufacture of doors, windows and other parts of the house]. Some of the data obtained through this research agree with information found in literature, however, many of the uses registered here are original, and point towards new perspectives for the evaluation of the adaptations of the rural population in the Brazilian dryland. (Utilização de cactáceas por sertanejos baianos. Tipos conexivos para definir categorias utilitárias) –Dentre as co-nexões seres humanos/vegetal no Semi-árido, destaca-se a conexão de múltiplo uso com cactáceas, incluindo-as como recursos alimentares, medicinais, ornamentais etc. Não existindo conhecimento abrangente que esteja sinteticamente siste-matizado, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar criticamente a literatura disponível, com base em um estudo etnobotânico de campo realizado em cinco municípios do Semi-árido baiano: Valente, Queimadas, Santaluz, São Domingos e Canudos. Foram feitas entrevistas informais e semi-estruturadas com 32 moradores locais. Seus depoimentos foram registrados em fitas magnéticas e transcritos verbatim. A amostra foi definida a partir de encontros ad libitum que permitiram um acréscimo por progressão em bola de neve e a amostragem foi considerada suficiente com base no efeito de uma inclusão progressiva que permitiu aplicar o critério de exaustividade. O material botânico foi herborizado in loco, identificado por especialista e depositado no herbário HUEFS. Foram identificadas taxonomicamente dez espécies, as quais, segundo os informantes, têm utilização local: Cereus jamacaru DC., Harrisia adscendens (Guerke) Britton & Rose, Melocactus salvadorensis Werdermann, Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck, Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawler) Haworth, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller, Opuntia palmadora Britton & Rose, Pilosocereus catingicola (Guerke) Byles & Rowley, Pilosocereus gounellei (Weber) Byles & Rowley, Pilosocereus tuberculatus (Werdermann) Byles & Rowley. A análise das diversas utilizações permitiu enquadrá-las em oito dos tipos conexivos propostos por Marques: lúdico, médico, místico, econômico, estético, doméstico, erótico e trófico. As conexões do tipo médico e trófico são enquadráveis nos subtipos direto e indireto. As categorias de uso que incluíram o maior número de espécies identificadas foram as correspondentes aos tipos conexivos trófico indireto (n= 10) e direto (n= 6) e médico direto (n= 7). Foram detectadas tanto conexões com status de permanência forte (e.g., feitura de cercas vivas-conexão do tipo doméstico; ornamentação-conexão do tipo estético; comercialização-conexão do tipo econômico; " simpatia "-conexão do tipo místico; preparo de remédios – conexão do tipo médico) quanto com status de residuárias fracas (e.g., a conexão do tipo doméstico para feitura de portas, janelas, ripas e caibros). Embora alguns dados obtidos estejam de acordo com o já relatado na literatura, muitos deles são originais, o que abre novas pers-pectivas para uma avaliação adaptativa das populações rurais do Semi-árido. Palavras-chaves: Cactos, etnobotânica ecológica, nordeste Semi-Árido.

SUMMARY Classic ethnoscientific techniques were adapted to describe and analyze the knowledge of peasant potters about soils they use for making pottery in a rural village in the Agreste region, State of Paraiba, northeastern Brazil. Five soil profiles from pits where local people obtain pottery clay were formally described by researchers (etic approach) and by peasant artisans (emic approach). Samples collected during both the emic and etic approaches were used for the morphological and analytical soil characterization. The peasant potters were able to distinguish, identify, and name soil materials arranged in layers along the soil profiles, somehow comparable to the arrangement of the pedogenetic horizons. Vision, touch and taste are used by local potters to evaluate the quality of pottery clay. Among the soil profiles described near clay pits, four were classified as Haplic Solonetz, and one as Eutric Planosol, according to the FAO/UNESCO legend. Ethnopedological studies in different social and pedological environments could contribute to the advancement of soil science and are an opportunity for an improvement in the understanding and appreciation of soil knowledge and management by peasant potters.

RESUMOTécnicas adaptadas da etnociência clássica foram utilizadas para descrever e avaliar os conhecimentos de um grupo de artesãos camponeses do Agreste Paraibano sobre alguns solos que eles usam como recurso cerâmico. Cinco perfis de solo foram descritos por agrônomos-pesquisadores (abordagem eticista) e por camponeses (abordagem emicista), em locais onde a população local extrai material para cerâmica. Amostras coletadas em ambas as abordagens foram usadas para caracterização morfológica e analítica desses solos. Os camponeses pesquisados foram capazes de distinguir, identificar e nomear diversos materiais de solo, arranjados em estratos ao longo dos perfis de solo, de modo comparável ao arranjo dos horizontes pedogenéticos. A visão, o tato e o paladar foram empregados pelos artesãos na avaliação da qualidade do solo para cerâmica. Quatro perfis descritos junto às fontes de material cerâmico foram classificados como Planossolo Nátrico e um como Planossolo Háplico. A realização de pesquisas etnopedológicas em diferentes contextos sociais e pedológicos pode contribuir para o avanço da ciência do solo, sendo também uma oportunidade para melhor compreender as formas camponesas de conhecimento e manejo de solos.

(A phenomenological approach to a human-animal interaction in a Brazilian Northeastern street market – Feira de Santana / BA) – At Feira de Santana (Bahia) a phenomenon constituted by selling folkloric medicines utilizing some reptilians as as an attraction was reported. Aiming to understand its complexity, a pioneer phenomenological approach (in ethnozoology) was conducted. It consisted in interpreting a kind of human-animal connection throught its qualitative aspects. The phenomenon was described as a theater play: it consists of a commercial interaction (medicine selling) ethnomedically fraudulent, including an " ergonomic " connection (snakes and lizards acting as advertisers) that follows a medical man/plant connection (plant collect and phytotherapic production). The archetypical value of the snakes was invoked to explain its symbolic efficacy as clients as an attarction. The phenomenological interpretation revealed a complex level of the phenomenon which would be very difficult to obtain utilizing ethnozoological approaches.

(Leitura fenomenológica de uma interação homem-animal em uma feira nordestina-Feira de Santana / BA) – Em Feira de Santana (BA), foi documentado o fenômeno da venda de produtos medicinais folclóricos exibindo-se répteis como atrativo. Para compreendê-lo, utilizou-se uma metodologia fenomenológica, abordagem pioneira em etnozoologia, a qual constou da leitura qualitativa de um tipo de conexão homem/animal. O fenômeno foi descrito estruturando-se uma peça teatral, fiel às falas: ele consiste em uma interação comercial (venda de remédios) etnomedicamente fraudulenta que é intermediada por uma conexão homem/animal do tipo " ergonômica " (utilização de cobras e lagartos como " garotos-propaganda ") posterior a uma conexão homem/vegetal do tipo médica (coleta de plantas e preparo de " fitoterápico "). O valor arquetípico das serpentes foi invocado como explicativo da eficácia simbólica na atração de clientes. A leitura fenomenológica da interação investigada desvelou-o em uma complexidade que dificilmente seria evidenciável pelas abordagens tradicionais da etnozoologia.

(Fishing activities developed by fishermen from Siribinha’s community, city of Conde, Bahia: an ethnoecological approach) – This article deals with fishing activities performed by artisanal fishermen from Siribinha, a community located in the city of Conde, north coast of the state of Bahia. Cultural information about fishing gear, lunar-tide cycle, fishing grounds, tenure systems, fishing secrets, and conflicts between social groups were recorded through open interviews and field observations. Social-environmental changes caused both by the urbanization process and implementation of tourism were also recorded. The understanding of the fishing activities and fishermen’s knowledge about the behavior, ecology, and spatiotemporal distribution of fish species imply the correct use of the fishing gear and of the proper appropriation of the fishing resources. It is suggested the inclusion of the fishermen’s culture into the development planning in order to lead to an environmentally sustainable development.

(Atividades de pesca desenvolvidas por pescadores da comunidade de Siribinha, município de Conde, Bahia: uma abordagem etnoecológica) – Este artigo trata das atividades de pesca desenvolvidas por pescadores artesanais de Siribinha, comuni-dade localizada no município de Conde, litoral norte do estado da Bahia. Por meio de entrevistas abertas e observações de campo, foram registradas informações culturais sobre: apetrechos de pesca, ciclo lua-maré, pesqueiros, sistemas de posse, segredos de pesca e conflitos entre grupos sociais. Mudanças sócio-ambientais ocasionadas pelo processo de urbanização e pela implementação do turismo também foram registradas. O entendimento das atividades de pesca e o conhecimento dos pescadores sobre o comportamento, ecologia e distribuição espacial e temporal das espécies de peixes implicam o uso correto dos apetrechos de pesca e a devida apropriação dos recursos pesqueiros. Sugere-se a inclusão da cultura pesqueira local nos planos de desenvolvimento a fim de levar a um desenvolvimento ecologicamente sustentável. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Pescadores artesanais, etnoecologia, desenvolvimento sustentável (Fishing activities developed by fishermen from Siribinha's community, city of Conde, Bahia: an ethnoecological approach) – This article deals with fishing activities performed by artisanal fishermen from Siribinha, a community located in the city of Conde, north coast of the state of Bahia. Cultural information about fishing gear, lunar-tide cycle, fishing grounds, tenure systems, fishing secrets, and conflicts between social groups were recorded through open interviews and field observations. Social-environmental changes caused both by the urbanization process and implementation of tourism were also recorded. The understanding of the fishing activities and fishermen's knowledge about the behavior, ecology, and spatiotemporal distribution of fish species imply the correct use of the fishing gear and of the proper appropriation of the fishing resources. It is suggested the inclusion of the fishermen's culture into the development planning in order to lead to an environmentally sustainable development.

ABSTRACT. Ethnoichthyology of artisan fishermen from Siribinha, municipality of Conde (Bahia): aspects related to the ethology of fishes. This paper aimed to record the ethnoichthyological knowledge of fishermen from Siribinha, an artisan fishing community located in the municipality of Conde, northern coast state of Bahia. In this article, the native perception about fish behavior is observed including sound production, reproduction, and trophic ecology. Data were obtained through open and semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires conducted with 84 informants, men and women of varying ages. Fish specimens were collected, identified, and deposited at the Laboratory of Ichthyology of the Department of Biology at Feira de Santana State University (UEFS). Fishermen perceive the fish behavior by classifying it into 18 ethological ethnocategories, such as “jumping fish”, “travelling fish”, “schooling fish”, and “bed-maker fish”. This traditional ichthyological knowledge has shown itself consistent with the western ichthyological knowledge. Fishermen’s knowledge about fish’s ethological characters is a significant resource that they utilize during their fishing activities. This knowledge should be incorporated in studies of management, conservation, and rational utilization of fishing resources.

The Mundaú-Manguaba Lagunar-Estuarine Complex is located on the medium littoral in the State of Alagoas, Brazil. It is a multi-stressed ecocomplex secularly occupied by fishing communities and presently it suffers an increasing environmental degradation. A study was conducted (1985-1990) intending to detect the fishermen cognition, mainly in respect to the knowledge they have concerning with fish ecology. Their behavior as patch environment modifiers was also investigated. Some hipothesis were elaborated and one of them (related to the trophic ecology of the catfish Arius herzbergii was tested. Three cognitive aspects were specially investigated: ethnotaxonomy, space/time dimensions and trophic ecology. Three case studies were conducted: taxonomic/etfnotaxonomic aspects of the family Mugilidae (locally known as the "navel family"), patchy modification caused by the fishery gear/technology called as "caiçara" and the role of the trophic link between the mayflies locally known as "mariposas" and the catfish locally known as "bagre marruá" (A. herzbergii). Data were collected in interviews and questionnaires as well as by direct observations and tours conducted by fishermen. The classical taxonomic techniques (measurement and counts) and the usual stomach content analyses (numerical and occurence frequencies) were utilized to Mugilidae and Ariidae, respectively. Perceived ethnoecological models were obtained and they were compared to the ecological models in the scientific tradition. The concordance between one and another, although being not absolute, was impressive and this was strongly demonstrated in the case of the Ephemeroptera/Ariidae trophic link. The conclusions are: (a) the fishermen categorize the fish universe of their environment through multiple classificatory systems, including that based on taxonomic principles and ecological realities; (b) the correspondence between popular names/scientific names that scientific community proposes is questioned by the categorization they uo about the Mugilidae; (c) the fishermen share a sophisticated model concerning the spatial configuration and the temporal organization of their environment and behave in accordance with, such as by increasing local productivity; (d) the fishermen possess trophic models that include fish in a detailed and patterned manner which are coherent to the trophic models described in the pertinent literature; (e) one of these models (that related to the link ephemerids/catfishes), tested in laboratory, permits to consider Ephemeroptera being a circumstantially important item in the diet of Ariidae in tropical estuaries.