Command and Control

Decision-making is a cognitive process stemming from the analysis of available courses of action related to a given problem. Rationally, potential courses of action are derived from deliberate analysis of available data related to a problem and its potential outcomes. Decisions are generally characterized as normative, descriptive or naturalistic. Normative decisions are based on evidence, logic and analysis; descriptive decisions are based on intuition and experience. Naturalistic decisions are formed as a hybrid of normative and descriptive processes.

For decision-makers the revolution in information technology and the amount and scope of the data they provide has become overwhelming, leading to cognitive overload, confusion and an inability to function effectively. Decision Support Systems (DSS) facilitate data analysis and selection of a viable course of action rapidly and effectively. However, like the human decision- makers they serve, DSS capabilities may also suffer from cognitive overload, inaccuracy, and complexity, especially in time-sensitive environments.

This study explores DSS employment for time-sensitive decision processes using Digitally Aided Close Air Support (DACAS) as a model. The study explores decision theory, models, DSS development and time-sensitive environments. Using DACAS as a model the paper reveals the obstacles and opportunities associated with the employment of DSS for time- sensitive processes. Finally, the study makes recommendations for improved employment of DSS in time-sensitive environments.

This paper describes the development of a methodology to import key products of the DoD Architecture Framework into an executable form to conduct a dynamic analysis of the Command and Control (C2) system or capability represented by the architecture. Dynamic analysis of these models enables a user to assess the impact of change and determine measures of performance and effectiveness. The research team successfully implemented the methodology in a demonstration that made a three-way link among a business process model, a communications network model, and a combat simulation representing the system's operational environment. We linked these models together via the Runtime Infrastructure (RTI) of the High Level Architecture (HLA). Basic HLA interactions that we established allowed key events in the combat simulation to initiate one or more business processes in the process model. As a business process proceeded in time, the process model requested from the communications model a de...

As part of the National Center for Border Security and Immigration (NCBSI) led by the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), researchers from the University of Washington, Wayne State University, and UTEP conducted a three-site study of border security operations and the role of command, control and communication (C3) systems in support of those operations. While inevitably bringing some positive capability to the environment, if C3 systems are not consciously aligned with desired practices and decision-making, the implications will not always be for the better. This is especially true of C3 systems in the border security environment because these systems are intimately intertwined with complex and critical workflow and decision-making processes, often in the context of complex and, at times, competing missions.

... Sensory information comes from a Laser Range Finder also developed by the author [6]. Range data are made up of hundreds of 2D relative coordinate points of targets in the field of view of the sensor camera, already filtered and grouped ... [2] JC Garcı́a, M. Marrón, JA Garcı́a, J ...

The paper presents a generic model for designing re-configurable C4ISR systems. The paper recognizes that despite the detailed guidelines provided ,by the Department ,of Defense ,Architecture Framework (DODAF) for designing systems-of-systems (SOS), DODAF may not be appropriate for creating adaptive C4ISR systems. Most importantly, DODAF lacks any theoretical foundation for designing not only C4ISR systems, but also for creating any SOS such as the Department of Defense’s (DOD) visionary Global Information Grid (GIG) that requires integration of coalition partners. Using axiomatic theory, the scientific concepts for creating Integrated Manufacturing Production Systems (IMPSs), the value system model, and borrowing from Martin’s work [Martin Book II 1990] for creating information-based enterprises, we have,constructed the generic model ,that could serve as a template ,for designing an adaptive ,C4ISR. More importantly, the paper recognizes that future DOD systems-of-systems must foll...

Information systems (IS) provide a revolutionary technology to support, or perhaps fundamentally change, how our military forces are commanded. This paper is motivated by a search for underlying principles of Command and Control (C2) to provide a firmer footing for understanding how computing and communications advances are, or could be more effectively, applied in the C2 process. Command archetypes identified by researchers such as van Creveld, Czerwinski and Builder are described and related to current military C2 doctrine. The role of C2 research is then examined in relation to these command principles. Based on this analysis, the paper concludes that C2 research conducted without explicitly identifying the command principle could in fact be undermining current military command. By adopting a more principled approach, particularly in the application of IS, two streams of C2 research emerge. The first is that intended to enhance the command type used by the military, and the secon...

This paper derives from a study undertaken at an emergency service centre in Sweden. The studies have focused on features of work familiar to the CSCW community, including the documenting and analysing current work practices, understanding the properties of the technology in question, and perhaps most importantly how the technology functions in and through use. Our focus in this paper

This paper traces the evolution of planning procedures in India, from the wartime controls to the system of centralized command-type planning which was extended to the private sector through industrial licensing. It was found that although the planners and policymakers in India initially understood the need for the use of a variety of instruments and controls for indicative-type planning in a mixed economy, there has always been a mismatch between planning intentions and the use of instruments in their more appropriate form. A quantitative evaluation of planned performance over the seven Five Year Plans has also been provided.

In this paper, we consider some possible consequences for command and control (C2) of
the technological characteristics of fifth generation aircraft. Delegation of decision rights may be
needed to fully exploit fifth generation fighter aircraft stealth and situation awareness capability.
We suggest that when delegating decision rights to the pilot, e.g. target engagement authority,
commanders need to weigh the cost and benefits of sharing and not sharing information. The
benefits of delegation, and temporarily relinquish information sharing, may come at the cost of less
strategic control. Delegation may involve temporarily relinquishing the opportunity to
communicate with the pilot. In such a case the mission may be solved better and faster tactically.
In making a delegation decision, the commander could therefore benefit from a formal framework,
where known factors influencing delegation decisions are systematically examined, and the
communication process with the fighter jet pilot is clearly described. This could shorten the
decision-making time at the same time as reducing biases from omitting crucial factors in decisionmaking.
Based on such a framework we discuss implications for Air Force and Joint C2.

The Vojnotehnički glasnik / Military Technical Courier (ISSN 0042-8469, e-ISSN 2217-4753, UDC 623+355/359, DOI: 10.5937/VojnotehnickiGlasnik; https://doi.org/10.5937/VojnotehnickiGlasnik) is a multidisciplinary scientific journal of the Ministry of Defence and the Serbian Armed Forces.
The publisher of the journal is the University of Defence in Belgrade.
The journal publishes scientific and professional papers covering fundamental research (mathematics, computer science and mechanics) and technological development (electronics, telecommunications, information technologies, mechanical engineering, material science and chemical technologies) as well as technical data on modern weapon systems and military technologies.
The program of the journal is based on the annual classification of journals performed by a relevant Ministry as well as on its indexing in international indexing databases.
The journal covers inter-service technical support to the Army on the principle of logistic system support; fundamental, applied and development research; production and use of weapons and military equipment. Also, the journal publishes other theoretical and practical achievements leading to professional development of all members of Serbian, regional and international academic communities as well as members of the military and ministries of defence in particular.

Communication of command and control (C2) information for military forces is moving towards more digitized systems. As such, not only are humans consuming this information but also more and more automated systems are doing so. Most recently there has been a need to use simulations to stimulate and be stimulated by the Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance

The Vojnotehnički glasnik / Military Technical Courier (ISSN 0042-8469, e-ISSN 2217-4753, UDC 623+355/359, DOI: 10.5937/VojnotehnickiGlasnik; https://doi.org/10.5937/VojnotehnickiGlasnik) is a multidisciplinary scientific journal of the Ministry of Defence and the Serbian Armed Forces.
The publisher of the journal is the University of Defence in Belgrade.
The journal publishes scientific and professional papers covering fundamental research (mathematics, computer science and mechanics) and technological development (electronics, telecommunications, information technologies, mechanical engineering, material science and chemical technologies) as well as technical data on modern weapon systems and military technologies.
The program of the journal is based on the annual classification of journals performed by a relevant Ministry as well as on its indexing in international indexing databases.
The journal covers inter-service technical support to the Army on the principle of logistic system support; fundamental, applied and development research; production and use of weapons and military equipment as well as other theoretical and practical achievements leading to professional development of all members of Serbian, regional and international academic communities, members of the Ministry of Defence and the Army of Serbia in particular.

THE MILITARY TECHNICAL COURIER / VOJNOTEHNIČKI GLASNIK (ISSN 0042-8469, e-ISSN 2217-4753, UDC 623+355/359) is a multidisciplinary scientific journal of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia. It publishes scientific and professional papers as well as technical data on modern weapon systems and military technologies.
The journal covers inter-service technical support to the Army on the principle of logistic system support; fundamental, applied and development research; production and use of weapons and military equipment as well as other theoretical and practical achievements leading to professional development of all members of Serbian, regional and international academic communities, members of the Ministry of Defence and the Army of Serbia in particular.

Intelligence Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) systems provide key capabilities to the coalition and national command authorities for intelligence collection, exploitation and battle management. ISR systems support the full range of component commanders at all levels of command. Further, both coalition and national command authorities may employ exploited and pre-exploited ISR information in the development of politico-military options for military and civil operations within an area of operations (AO). As a result, ISR information provides a critical piece of information for both military commanders and their civilian counterparts operating in the same AO and will likely be in demand for contingency operations from disaster relief to military conflict. This paper will present the key findings of experimentation employing network enabled databases and ISR management tools for dissemination of ISR data and information. Subjects to be addressed include but are not limited to information security and cross domain data transfer, network resource allocation and tools provided for review and minimization of bandwidth requirements, tasking and management of ISR systems by end users outside of traditional networks, communications capabilities and limitations realized through collaboration functions and web enabled applications as well as ISR command and control in an open network of multiple end users.

A critical need exists for a solid understanding of the factors that influence team decision making and performance in order to identify interventions that can affect the decision making process and improve performance (Klinger et al., 1993; Salas, Bowers, and Cannon-Bowers, 1995; Hall and Regian, 1996). In this paper we describe a variety of team-based measures we have used to

Introducing agile practices into software organizations impacts how projects are planned, coordinated and tracked. In this panel, we discussed commonalities and differences between agile project management and more traditional ideas. Topics discussed included: What works, what doesn’t in an agile context? What kind of company culture is required for agile project management to flourish? How can we transition to an agile approach? What obstacles will be encountered? How can they be overcome? When are more traditional approaches more appropriate?

This paper looks at German command and control from the Wars of Unification to the outbreak of the First World War.  It analyses German definitions of different command levels and their function in combat, the vocabulary of command and, related to this, the concept of mission command.  This leads into a section on how Helmuth von Moltke the Elder and Alfred Graf von Schlieffen thought about command.  Under Schlieffen's successor, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, much of this thinking was codified in instructions for senior commanders which were in force at the outbreak of war.  The paper's conclusions show the links between German concepts of command and modern ideas.

I wrote this think-piece in 2010 when I was a PhD candidate at the University of Liverpool.  It has not been published, but I drew on it for my thesis 'Genius for War? German Operational Command on the Western Front in Early 1917' (2016).

Summary
This report documents the widespread, systematic use of sexual violence by the Myanmar Army during its brutal “clearance operation” in northern Rakhine State in the second half of 2017. This operation has driven over 680,000 Rohingya villagers into Bangladesh.
Testimonies of 36 refugees, eight of whom are rape survivors, provide evidence that government troops raped well over 300 women and girls in or near at least seventeen villages across Maungdaw and northern Buthidaung townships, as well as in Maungdaw town, during the operation. With over 350 villages attacked and burned at this time, this number is likely only a fraction of the actual total of women raped.
In the weeks before the official launch of the operation on August 25, thousands of Myanmar Army troops were deployed from existing military camps in Rakhine State, and from central Myanmar, to reinforce Border Guard Police posts throughout northern Rakhine State. These troops were the main perpetrators of sexual violence, at every stage of the operation.
Before the start of the operation, the troops committed rape during security patrols and “anti-terror” raids in remote rural areas, where many men had gone into hiding for fear of arrest and torture. In two villages alone in northern Buthidaung, six women and one six-year-old girl were gang-raped by government troops in the weeks before August 25. However, the majority of rape incidents, involving hundreds of women, took place during the actual attacks starting on August 25, when large numbers of troops entered villages shooting indiscriminately, torturing and killing civilians, and burning houses. Women and girls were caught and raped in their houses, as they were running away, or after being rounded up in large groups in or near the villages; some were horribly mutilated. In the village of Tula Toli (Min Gyi) in northern Maungdaw, survivors estimate that well over one hundred women and girls were raped during the attack; many were also killed.
The sexual violence did not only take place in rural areas. Witnesses described the capture and rape of women in the town of Maungdaw after August 25, when it was in a security lockdown by hundreds of troops.
Women fleeing to the border were also targeted for rape. Scores of women and girls from Buthidaung were raped when security forces caught them trying to cross the Mayu mountain range to reach the Bangladesh border.
Sexual violence involved hundreds of soldiers and occurred across the length of Maungdaw and northern Buthidaung. Such scale and breadth of incidence provides strong evidence that rape was systematically planned and used as a weapon against the Rohingya population.
In five locations—including Maungdaw town itself—women and girls were forcibly detained and raped in military camps, for periods of up to two weeks. This can only have been authorized by commanding officers of the camps.
Rape was committed flagrantly by groups of soldiers, who jointly beat, held down, or tied up women and young girls, and took turns to rape them. Often this took place in front of other troops, and sometimes in front of civilians, showing clear confidence of impunity, which can only have come from shared knowledge of authorization to rape.
Most of the rape incidents involved other forms of brutal torture, including biting, beating, cutting with knives, and burning. In eleven villages, as well as Maungdaw town, rape victims are known to have been killed or died from their injuries. This indicates that rape was part of an overall strategy to mete out savage punishment to women and girls – apparently for their very identity as Rohingya.
The pattern of mutilation of women’s breasts and genitals after rape—already apparent in 2016—suggest a specific directive to instill terror in this way, flaunting the army’s ability not just to sexually possess the women of their “enemy,” but also destroy their very means of reproduction.
The well-publicized events in Tula Toli—in which over a hundred women were gang-raped and tortured, with many burned alive—provide compelling evidence of specific orders to commit mass rape. Without such orders, it would be impossible for an estimated 400 troops from different camps, backed up by air support, to so precisely coordinate the massacre of hundreds of civilians in the morning and then methodically gang-rape women over a period of hours in the afternoon.
The systematic use of rape as a weapon is a war crime, a crime against humanity, and a tactic of genocide, for which Myanmar’s military leaders must be held responsible.
It is imperative that the Myanmar government stops blindly defending its armed forces. The government must take immediate action to end the military’s systematic atrocities, including sexual violence, not least for the danger posed to the entire society. By authorizing and directing their troops to commit rape, military commanders are encouraging them to find sexual gratification from acts of violence that inflict pain and terror, and cause irreparable damage to women’s lives. With hundreds of thousands of troops deployed across Myanmar, this has horrifying implications for the safety of women and girls throughout the country.
The Myanmar government must order an immediate stop to its army’s atrocities against civilians, including rape, and begin processes to hold the army’s entire command structure to account. A first step to this is to allow the UN Fact Finding Mission into the country.

Abstract The accelerating rate at which all climate variables are changing, and the expected further acceleration of these, combined with the failure to make deep cuts in CO2 emissions and to develop sufficiently effective carbon removal technologies means that solar radiation management techniques that directly cool the planet will increasingly be recognized as a necessary first line response to climate change. In this article, we discuss why the target for a deployment of solar radiation management technologies must be to cool the planet to within 0.5⁰C of the 1880-1910 baseline, which is less than the temperature rise that existed in the early 1980s. We use game theory, and the sub branch of interconnected games, to show that failure to deploy solar radiation management technologies that are capable of achieving these targets results in nations pursuing a free-for-all strategic position where protection of self-interest in the face of a crisis makes achieving significant and sustainable cuts in CO2 emissions impossible. We also show with game theory that there remains a high probability that a successful deployment of solar radiation management technologies will be overwhelmed by continued CO2 emissions unless there are fundamental changes to political structures that can integrate management of security with management of the climate change response. This has major implications for decisions on the governance of solar radiation management.