Elevation

The ultimate goal of pattern recognition systems in remote sensing is to achieve the best possible classification performance for recognition of different objects such as buildings, roads and trees. From a scientific perspective, the extraction of roads in complex environments is one of the challenging issues in photogrammetry and computer vision, since many tasks related to automatic scene interpretation are involved. Roads have homogeneous reflectivity in LIDAR intensity and the same height as bare surface in elevation. Proposed method in this paper is based on combining multiple classifiers (MCS) is one of the most important topics in pattern recognition to achieve higher accuracy. Majority Voting and Selective Naive Bays are two methods that used for fusion of classifiers.

Communication via satellite begins when the satellite is positioned in the desired orbital position. Ground stations can communicate with LEO (Low Earth Orbiting) satellites only when the satellite is in their visibility region. The duration of the visibility and so the communication duration varies for each satellite pass at the ground station, specifically for LEO satellites which do move too fast over the Earth [1]. For low cost LEO satellite ground stations in urban environment it will be a big challenge to ensure communication down to the horizon. The communication at low elevation angles can be hindered through natural barriers. Thus, motion (appearance) detection of the satellite above natural barriers enables the practical horizon to be determined. Practical horizon differs from the ideal horizon. This paper discusses the satellites motion detection and the difference in between ideal and practical horizon. For this paper, data recorded at the Vienna satellite ground station...

This study aims to determine the species richness and abundance of spiders in Sacred Mountain, Marawi City, Lanao del Sur, Philippines. Beat netting, vial tapping, and pitfall trapping methods were used to collect samples at elevations of 800, 900, and 1000 meters above sea level. Forty-three species belonging to 11 families were documented. Highest species richness was observed at 1000 meters above sea level. Leucauge argentina of family Tetragnathidae was the most abundant species. Family Salticidae had the highest number of species collected comprising 14 species. Overall spider collection was categorized into six guilds wherein the orb weavers occurred to be the most abundant. High diversity and more or less even distribution of spiders were observed in the area. Physico-chemical factors appear to affect the distribution of spider families Tetrahedron and Theridiidae as shown by canonical correspondence analysis.

Data produced in this journal is a result of the survey made by Schadow1 Expeditions during its Palay-Palay Mataas na Gulod Mountain Range Mapping Expedition of 2014. Survey to the mountain range was made on multiple expeditions set on August 19-20, 2012;  August 17-18. 2013 and December 20-21, 2014. The Mounts Palay-Palay Mataas na Gulod Protected Landscape is a mountain range located in the northernmost area of the province of Batangas and westernmost section of the province of Cavite in the Philippines

The technique of interpolated arrays is applied to ESPRIT-type direction finding methods. The resulting method uses sensor arrays with an arbitrary configuration, thus eliminating the basic restrictive requirement of ESPRIT for two (or more) identical arrays. This approach allows for resolving D+1, while the original ESPRIT method requires at least 2D sensors. Moreover, it is shown that while ESPRIT performs poorly for signals propagating in parallel (or close to parallel) with the array displacement vector, the advocated technique does not exhibit such weakness. Finally, using two subarrays, ESPRIT cannot resolve azimuth and elevation even when the sensors are not collinear. However, the interpolated ESPRIT procedure resolves azimuth and elevation using only a single array. The performance of the original ESPRIT when the sensor locations are perturbed is also discussed and illustrated numerically

Water is the basic need of all living being of world. Demand of water is increase day by day. Water supply system is a system of engineered hydraulic and components which provide water supply. For the development of nation, water distribution network are very important for development of an area as they serve many purposes in addition to provision of water for human consumption. The water distribution network plays a virtual role in preserving and providing desirable life quality to the public, of which reliability of supply is the major component. It is difficult to provide safe water to the rural people in sufficient quantity, quality and at satisfactory pressure head with achieving economy constraint. EPANET software is used to design and analyze the multi village supply system with reference to technical sustainability. EPANET is computer program that performs extended period simulation of hydraulic behavior within pressurized pipe network. The study presents the hydraulic analysis of pipe line network of Punagam area near Surat city using EPANET 2.0. The area has 600.83 Ha area and 2, 22,252 Population (2016). Source supplies water to city by 109 junction having 144 Pipes divided in two different zones. The water from this source is taken via network of pipes to the GSR (Ground Services Reservoir) across the area. The water from these GSR is then pumped to the Adjacent ESRs (Elevated Storage Reservoirs) during the supply hours and water is supply to the area by gravity. Simulation has been carried out for hydraulic parameter such as had pressure and flow rate. The result obtained verified that the pressure at all junction and the flows with their velocities at all pipes are feasible enough to provide adequate water to the network of study area. The findings will help to understand the pipelines system of the study area in a better way. The study also deals with the future demand of the area.

The present study of 'Analysis of Continuous Water Distribution System in Surat City using EPANET software: A Case study' was carried out with a specific objective of effective planning, development of water distribution network and analysis using EPANET software. For this analysis the data for existing water distribution network was acquired from Surat Municipal Corporation and Multimedia Consultancy, Ahmedabad. The Google Earth Image of Surat City is downloaded and the elevation of node, length of pipe was recorded for nearly 214 junctions and 293 pipes. These data was used in EPANET software for analysis of pressure, head loss and elevation. This analysis resulted in pressure and elevation at various nodes and head loss at various pipes. Result of data analysis in software are compared with the actual data which will indicate that there is less head loss which is very essential for continuous pressure required for continuous water supply system in Surat City.

Nakh-Daghestanian languages have encountered growing interest from typologists and linguists from other subdiscplines, and more and more languages from the Nakh-Daghestanian language family are being studied. This paper provides a grammatical overview of the hitherto undescribed Sanzhi Dargwa, followed by a detailed analysis of the grammaticalized expression of spatial elevation in Sanzhi. Spatial elevation, a topic that has not received substantial attention in Caucasian linguistics, manifests itself across different parts of speech in Sanzhi Dargwa and related languages. In Sanzhi, elevation is a deictic category in partial opposition with participant-oriented deixis / horizontally-oriented directional deixis. This paper treats the spatial uses of demonstratives, spatial preverbs and spatial cases that express elevation as well as the semantic extension of this spatial category into other, non-spatial domains. It further compares the Sanzhi data to other Caucasian and non-Caucasian languages and makes suggestions for investigating elevation as a subcategory within a broader category of topographical deixis.

The mountains and highlands in the tropical areas receive more rainfall than the nearby lowlands, in highland areas at least on their windward sides. It is well known that a large part of the heavy rain received on the western side of Sri Lanka is induced by the topographic barriers known as the Central Highland (CH). The objective of this study was to examine whether these orographic rainfall profiles more or less agree with the global figures of the orographic rainfall in the tropical mountains. The orographic effect of the western side of the CH of Sri Lanka has been studied with reference to the annual average rainfall and Southwest Monsoon rainfall using data from 1959-2002. Monthly rainfall data were obtained from the Department of Meteorology in Colombo, Agro-Meteorology Unit, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya and Nakagawa et. al, (1995). The study area consists of nine representative locations of both sides of the CH elevation ranging from 2 to 1667 meters. These locations are Colombo, Kalutara PWD, Ratnapura, Abergeldie Group, Annifield Estate and Sandirigama, which lie on the western sides and Badulla, Wewessa and Dyraaba lying on the leeward side of the CH. The precipitation is dependent on the altitude over the western side, which is on the windward side with respect to the southwest monsoon whereas it is independent of the altitude over the eastern side, which is on the leeward side. The analysis showed that, in the western slopes of the CH, the southwest monsoon rainfall increases from the coast to the foothills and then increases up to about 1000 meters from there and decreases above that level. The annual average rainfall also increases up to a height of about 1000 meters and then, decreases above that level. This characteristic may be due to strong differences in water vapor contents between the lower and upper layers of the troposphere. The steep lapse rate frequently present in tropical air masses also tends to reduce the capacity of the air to retain water vapor in the higher parts of the troposphere. Further, the study revealed that the rainfall has been decreasing at some of the locations since 1959-2002. The annual average rainfall has also been analyzed from 1944-1963 for some selected rainfall stations. According to this analysis, the rainfall has been increasing from Colombo (2487 mm) up to Watawala (5127 mm) but then again from Watawala to Nuwaraeliya (1895 m) the annual average rainfall has been decreased rapidly. It is also shown that the rainfall amount is changed in the Uva basin, especially the eastern part. Welimada in the Uva basin is situated in the lower part of the Uva basin and therefore the Welimada receive less rainfall (leeward) from both monsoons. These analyses clearly show that the orographic effect of the Central Highland of Sri Lanka shares similar patterns with the global figures of the orographic rainfall in the tropical mountains and highlands.

Kalam Kohistan is a dry, temperate hilly region in the Hindu Raj Series of the Greater Hindu Kush Mountains with diverse forests. As plant distribution and
composition is expression of a range of various environmental variables, ecological and floristic attributes of vegetation in the Laikot Forests were therefore evaluated via consecutive explorative trips. These forests have not been evaluated ecologically before due to harsh climatic conditions and issues of accessibility and the study in hand is one of the first in its nature. Quantitative ecological techniques were used to sample forest vegetation and identify species in quadrats of 2 m 9 2 m for herbs, 5 m 9 5 m for shrubs and 10 m 9 10 m for trees. All the data of 195 plant species and environmental factors were analyzed via Two-way Cluster Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis using PCORD and
CANOCO software. Among 195 plant species from 63
families were 27 species of Asteraceae, the most-speciose family, followed by Poaceae (20 spp.). The dominant life form was therophyte (86 spp.; 44% share), followed by phanerophyte (41 spp.; 21% share). For the leaf size spectrum, most prevalent was nanophyll (73 spp.; 44%) followed by microphyll (66 spp., 34%) and mesophyll (44 spp.; 23%). Calcium carbonate, pH, potassium, sand, silt, organic matter, slope aspect and grazing significantly influenced species composition, distribution and habitat. The floristic variation in the region was diverse due to elevational and aspect gradients and thus devided into three zones. This vegetation zonation can be utilized for forest management, species and habitat conservation. Both
in situ and ex situ conservation of threatened plant species may improve their conservation status in future if address properly.

Article 38, para.1, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (“ICJ”) defines customary international law as evidence of general practice accepted as law, understood as State practice and opinio juris. However, by identifying certain norms as custom without referring to the traditional evidence of State practice and opinio juris, international courts and tribunals have also contributed to the formation of customary international law. This paper presents an analysis of how the ICJ in particular, contributes to the formation of customary international law by relying on the draft articles of the International Law Commission (“ILC”). The paper is based on two premises: the ICJ through its functions in applying international law (art.38 ICJ Statute, para.1) creates international law, by clarifying and identifying international law; whereas the ILC, by adopting on draft articles created in a creative process, directly contributes to the creation of international law unless States adopt the ILC draft articles in a treaty. By relying on the un-adopted ILC draft articles and declaring them to be customary international law, the ICJ creates and generates customary international law. The ICJ has been referring to the ILC draft articles since the 1969 North Sea Continental Shelf Case, and has over the years declared the draft articles to be customary international law. Interestingly, the ICJ tends to rely only on particular ILC draft articles that refer to the jurisprudence of either the Permanent Court of International Justice or the ICJ itself.

Abstract. 1. We revisited bumble bee survey data collected by Pyke in 1974 (Pyke, Ecology, 63, 555–573, 1982) to evaluate seasonal changes in abundances of bumble bees and their floral resources, diel patterns of bumble bee activity, and elevation effects on plant and bumble bee phenology. 2. Bumble bee abundance increased during summer as spring queens founded colonies that produced workers, followed by males and autumn queens. The number of plant species visited by bumble bees increased to a peak in midsummer, ...

The Solar Radiation Alert (SRA) system continuously evaluates measurements of high-energy protons made by instruments on GOES satellites. If the measurements indicate a substantial elevation of effective dose rates at aircraft flight altitudes, the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute issues an SRA via the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Weather Wire Service. This report describes a revised SRA system. SRA issue-criteria remain the same but significant improvements have been made in the calculations. The solar proton fluence to effective dose conversion coefficients have been recalculated using 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and the latest release of the Monte Carlo transport code, MCNPX 2.6.0. The shape of the <10 MeV secondary neutron spectrum is now accounted for down to 100 eV. The flux correction based on spectral index has been revised to smooth the flux spectrum of solar protons. Estimates of the >605 MeV spe...

Aim  This study investigates how estimated tree aboveground biomass (AGB) of tropical montane rain forests varies with elevation, and how this variation is related to elevational change in floristic composition, phylogenetic community structure and the biogeography of the dominant tree taxa.Location  Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia.Methods  Floristic inventories and stand structural analyses were conducted on 13 plots (each 0.24 ha) in four old-growth forest stands at 1050, 1400, 1800 and 2400 m a.s.l. (submontane to upper montane elevations). Tree AGB estimates were based on d.b.h., height and wood specific gravity. Phylogenetic diversity and biogeographical patterns were analysed based on tree family composition weighted by AGB. Elevational trends in AGB were compared with other Southeast Asian and Neotropical transect studies (n = 7).Results  AGB was invariant from sub- to mid-montane elevation (309–301 Mg ha−1) and increased slightly to 323 Mg ha−1 at upper montane elevation. While tree and canopy height decreased, wood specific gravity increased. Magnoliids accounted for most of the AGB at submontane elevations, while eurosids I (including Fagaceae) contributed substantially to AGB at all elevations. Phylogenetic diversity was highest at upper montane elevations, with co-dominance of tree ferns, Podocarpaceae, Trimeniaceae and asterids/euasterids II, and was lowest at lower/mid-montane elevations, where Fagaceae contributed > 50% of AGB. Biogeographical patterns showed a progression from dominant tropical families at submontane to tropical Fagaceae (Castanopsis, Lithocarpus) at lower/mid-montane, and to conifers and Australasian endemics at upper montane elevations. Cross-continental comparisons revealed an elevational AGB decrease in transects with low/no presence of Fagaceae, but relatively high AGB in montane forests with moderate to high abundance of this family.Main conclusions  AGB is determined by both changes in forest structure and shifts in species composition. In our study, these two factors traded off so that there was no net change in AGB, even though there were large changes in forest structure and composition along the elevational gradient. Southeast Asian montane rain forests dominated by Fagaceae constitute important carbon stocks. The importance of biogeography and species traits for biomass estimation should be considered by initiatives to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and in taxon choice in reforestation for carbon offsetting.

Soil fauna (macrofauna and mesofauna) were sampled in 13 beech forest stands of the Ardenne mountains (Belgium) covering a wide range of acidic humus forms. The composition of soil fauna was well correlated not only with humus form, but also with elevation, phytosociological type, tree growth, mineral content of leaf litter, and a few soil parameters such as pH and C/N ratio. The nature of the mechanisms that can explain these relationships is discussed in light of existing knowledge.

Elevation act as determinant of variation in species diversity, especially for the rattan palms which have become one of the most important non-wood forest produce. This study examines the species abundance, composition and species diversity of rattan along an altitudinal gradient in the offshore Penang Hill Reserve Forest of peninsular Malaysia. A total number of 1721 individuals under 10 species representing 4 genera of rattan were recorded in Penang Hill Reserve. High elevation recorded the highest abundance of individuals (966) comprising all ten species with the highest Margalef index value (R1= 1.309) and least evenness (e^H/S=0.4919). High diversity of rattan species (value of Shannon, H'=1.749), greater species evenness (e^H/S=0.7184) and the highest Menhinicks index value (R2= 0.3694) was observed in middle elevation. Low elevation recorded the lowest species richness (R1=0.5304, R2= 0.2365) but the highest dominance value (D=0.4306). Anthropogenic disturbances hamper the habitat of rattan in the lower elevation, near the periphery of this reserve on a continuous basis.

The study of prosocial behavior—altruism, cooperation, trust, and the related moral emotions—has matured enough to produce general scholarly consensus that prosociality is widespread, intuitive, and rooted deeply within our biological makeup. Several evolutionary frameworks model the conditions under which prosocial behavior is evolutionarily viable, yet no unifying treatment exists of the psychological decision-making processes that result in prosociality. Here, we provide such a perspective in the form of the sociocultural appraisals, values, and emotions (SAVE) framework of prosociality. We review evidence for the components of our framework at four levels of analysis: intrapsychic, dyadic, group, and cultural. Within these levels, we consider how phenomena such as altruistic punishment, prosocial contagion, self–other similarity, and numerous others give rise to prosocial behavior. We then extend our reasoning to chart the biological underpinnings of prosociality and apply our f...