Land Readjustment

This paper explains the system of land consolidation (LC) in Japan and analyzes management methods for successful eco-friendly urban development by private implementation. In Japan, LC project consists of three elements: 1. Land replotting; 2. Provision of infrastructure; 3. Self-financing by selling reserve land. This integrated system covers project effectively. As for the implementing body, besides the government sector, the private sector (organized by landowners) is one of the main implementers in Japan. One characteristic of private implementation is that residents have authority over the decision-making for the project. However, there are not many cases in which landowners take voluntary action through an LC project. Generally, such projects are hindered because of difficulties in raising funds from the project itself. In that sense, the case of the Nagakute Nanbu Area project was successful. The area is located in Nagakute City, which adjoins a central industrial city named Nagoya City. The new town development, cultivated by farmland and forests, aimed to preserve natural resources from the planning stage. Through the project, landowners engaged in natural resource conservation and its related maintenance. As for the analysis, this paper focuses on a management method by private implementers. Data was collected from project reports and interviews with stakeholders. Finally, this paper mentions some challenges to applying eco-friendly urban development by private implementers in other project areas.

Rapid urbanization demands the expansion of infrastructures. The land is a prerequisite to expand those facilities and services; however, urban lands are underutilized, fragmented into smaller pieces, and higher in price. This makes land acquisition lengthy, costly, and ignites social and political issues. Since land acquisition for infra projects demand higher upfront project cost that increases project cost, so this research examines the effectiveness of the innovative method to supply urban land for housing and other infrastructure without land acquisition. This study illustrates the concept of land readjustment with the case study from Nepal, which is implemented in partnership with a private partner (landowners). The study also examines some challenges in project implementation and provides a recommendation for speedy implementation. The result shows that major beneficiaries are both landowners and the government. The value of land increases for landowners, and the government can value capture since the public goods such as roads, drainage, water supply, parks, and other facilities are provided through landowner's contribution. The self-financing, innovation and cost-recovery characteristics of land readjustment make it an excellent example of public private partnership (PPP) at a smaller scale for sustainable urban development. The findings from this study are important for experiences sharing in the regional context, and the issues identified draws the attention of further researchers and policymakers

Sự phát triển bền vững đô thị biển phụ thuộc vào khả năng bảo vệ tài nguyên du lịch, đặc biệt là cảnh quan bao gồm tầm nhìn hướng biển và hướng có cảnh quan đẹp. Tuy nhiên, đây là bài toán khó giải do xung đột lợi ích giữa cộng đồng lân cận, mục tiêu phát triển lâu dài của đô thị, và yêu cầu tối đa hóa lợi ích của chủ đầu tư. Trong khi đó, các công cụ kỹ thuật và pháp lý dường như chưa đủ chi tiết, hiệu lực, và đặc biệt là phù hợp với tiếp cận thị trường để dung hòa lợi ích của các bên một cách thuyết phục. Bài viết thảo luận về một số lựa chọn trong thiết lập khuôn khổ pháp lý, kỹ thuật cùng các công cụ để việc quản lý phát triển đáp ứng yêu cầu bảo vệ cảnh quan tại khu vực đặc thù này.

Many believe that Land Readjustment (LR) can potentially resolve the stagnation of development that accrues
from scattered ownership and improve the financing of public infrastructure. With this enthusiasm for LR, arguments
are made that LR avoids the need to expropriate land, empowers landowners to develop their land and
provides the necessary public infrastructure at a lower or even no cost to the public. This enthusiasm has recently
drawn the attention of the Dutch government, who asked an expert committee to elaborate a draft proposal for
LR regulation. In the summer of 2014 this committee submitted this draft proposal to the Dutch government,
who since then isworking on a draft for an LR act. However, LR does not always resolve the previously mentioned
problems; in some countries, it is a “dead word” in legislation. Unfortunately, not many studies analyze the aspects
of LR regulations that might be critical in practice. Based on other countries' experienceswith LR (especially
Germany and Spain), this paper develops a framework of analysis that concludes that the proposed Dutch LR regulation
may not fulfill expectations in reality.

Studies about the effectiveness and efficiency of planning policies in general, and of land readjustment (LR) regulations in particular, face many challenges given the paucity of common methods that allow systematic comparisons between different contexts. This paper develops an analytical framework to study the effectiveness and efficiency of LR-regulations and applies it in Germany, Spain, and Israel. This framework defines several independent variables: LR regulation, its related coercive powers, and its interaction with public value capture instruments. The conceptual frame also defines the dependent variables: certainty about the provision of necessary inputs (land and financial means) and about the necessary outputs (implementation of land readjustment and infrastructure provision). Using this analytical framework, it is possible to compare the degree to which the studied LR-regulations are effective and efficient, i.e. whether they provide serviced building plots with proper public infrastructure without public subsidy.

Konsep dasar Land Readjustment (LR) terdiri dari land replotting  dan land contribution. Keuntungan LR adalah dapat mengatur kepemilikan privat, dapat melibatkan pemilik lahan dalam program, serta dapat menyeimbangkan nilai lahan secara optimal. Beberapa negara di dunia ini yang sudah mulai menerapkan LR antara lain Amerika, Columbia, Swedia, Inggris, Jerman, Korea, Nepal, Taiwan, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Filipina, Australia dan Indonesia. Negara yang pertama kali menerapkan konsep LR adalah Jepang (sejak tahun 1870) dan Jerman (sejak ± tahun 100 tahun yang lalu). Konsep LR di beberapa negara memiliki persamaan walaupun dengan nama yang berbeda-beda.
Jepang dan Jerman memakai istilah Land Readjustment, di Taiwan disebut Land Banking, di Australia disebut dengan Land Pooling, sementara di Indonesia disebut dengan Land Consolidation (konsolidasi lahan). Taiwan mencoba memahami LR di Jepang dan menjadi konsep Land Banking. Kemudian Indonesia mencoba menerapkan konsep Taiwan tersebut, dan lahirlah konsep Konsolidasi Lahan.
Ada perbedaan antara konsolidasi lahan dan LR. Pada konsolidasi lahan, akses diatur tetapi ruang lingkungannya tidak tertata. Sedangkan LR mengatur keduanya, sehingga daerah yang terkena LR menjadi lebih tertata dan disesuaikan dengan akses yang baru tadi. Sebagai contoh, dalam peta kota-kota di Jepang yang sudah menerapkan LR, garis-garis jalannya lebih lurus dan teratur. 
Ada pula perbedaan antara LR dan Land Acquisition. Pada metode akuisisi yang telah diatur dalam Perpres 36/2005 tentang Akuisisi Tanah, lahan pada proyek dibeli, perlu dana besar untuk memulai pembangunan, serta pemilik lahan harus pindah. Sedangkan dengan metode LR pada prinsipnya lahan tidak dibeli, initial cost rendah dan pemilik lahan dapat tinggal di tempat asalnya.
Indonesia telah melaksanakan program semacam land readjustment berupa KIP (Kampoeng Improvement Program), Konsolidasi Tanah (Land Consolidation) dan Peremajaan Kota (Urban Renewal).  Salah satu pelaksanaan konsolidasi tanah perkotaan secara swadaya yaitu di Desa Nambangan, Kecamatan Selogiri, Kabupaten Wonogiri.

My interest in the financing of public infrastructure and facilities in urban development led me to do research at the Delft University of Technology (2004–2008) and the Radboud University of Nijmegen, where I obtained my PhD degree on this topic in 2010.

Indonesia has a population of 258 million, with
50 percent concentrated in Java Island. With a geographical area of 1904.569 square
Km, the country is growing at a rate of 14 percent per year. It cannot be denied
that the physical development of urban space is strongly influenced by urbanisation.
The development of urbanisation in Indonesia can be observed from three aspects:
first, the number of people living in urban areas, now reaching 120 million from a
total of 230 million people; second, uneven population distribution (almost 70
percent in Java with 125 million people and in Sumatra with 45 million people);
and, third, the high rate of urbanisation, in which metropolitan cities, such as
Jakarta (including Bekasi, Bogor, and Tangerang), Surabaya, Bandung, Medan,
Palembang, and Makassar, are the main magnets. Statistical records show that
since 1970, Indonesia’s urban population fraction increased from 17.4% (1970) to
22.3% (1980), 30.9% (1990), 43.99% (2002) and, finally, 52.03% (2010). This means
that within 40 years, urbanization has doubled and the urban population has tripled.
In the future, the trend in urbanisation is expected to continue due to natural
urban population growth, rural-urban migration, and regional expansion. With a
moderate growth rate of 1.5%/year, the proportion of the population of the city is
expected to increase to 60.39% in 2020. Urban areas have a relatively fixed area,
while the need for land continues to increase. Weaknesses in urban management
lead to speculation, illegal land use, and the proliferation of slums. In the last few
decades, we have observed a very rapid process of social transformation in urban
areas that has changed the morphology of Indonesian cities. This transformation
was accelerated after the implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia since
1999. To deal with various land conflicts, Indonesia has regulations and national,
provincial and local spatial planning under National Land Agency and Planning Board.
LC/LR is used as an Instrument to improve the urban land use, initiated in 1981 in
Denpasar. It is important to understand the extent to which the implementation of
LC/LR has been able to improve the efficiency and productivity of the morphological
transformation of urban land use in Indonesia.

Land (re)development is an integral part of TOD planning especially in the areas that are already built. Dhaka the capital city of Bangladesh is a densely populated spontaneous city with narrow roads, inadequate pedestrian facilities, unplanned structures, inappropriate land use mix and weak policy enforcing environment. TOD planning here is more difficult than other cities of the developed world.This study has considered an empirical case station, analyzesthe spatial attributes that theoretically define TOD and available policy documents to identify the opportunities and challenges of (re)development for TOD planning in Dhaka.Study has recognizedland readjustment for the under developed parts of the study area as the best suitable land redevelopment tool in the context of Dhaka to integrate landuse with proposed transit stations after evaluating the existing physical form of the city,relevant policies and TOD practices of different cities.

This paper examines how small property owners in low density residential areas could establish a cooperative to finance a demolition and reconstruction of their community in order to improve urban and economic conditions. A fee developer is contracted to oversee the project while residents become full or majority owners of high income generating commercial properties as well as new housing. This paper considers a hypothetical application to areas of unplanned construction on the Adriatic coast in Croatia.

An increasing number of planners have explored the implication of Coase Theorem for planning theory and practice. As there are often a large and dispersed number of actors involved in planning issues, the application of 'Pure' Coasian solutions has proved to be limited. However, some studies argue that when the conditions for a 'Pure' Coasian solution do not exist, 'Impure' Coasian solutions may still be achievable. This paper examines how, when conditions of 'Impure' Coasian solutions are available, local authorities in Switzerland use Land Improvement Syndicates (LIS) as a policy instrument in order to achieve negotiated solutions in relation to development processes involving multiple landowners. With a syndicate in the commune of Cheseaux as an illustrative example, the paper analyses how this policy instrument has been utilised to reduce transaction costs, correct information asymmetries, and clarify property rights. The focus has been on an interpretation of the Coasian Theorem that identifies attempts to reduce transaction costs and clarify property rights as the main roles of governments or local authorities.

In the development sector, the need for land is increasing, resulting in the higher land value and land use mismatches. Urban areas have a relatively fixed area, while the need for land continues to increase. Weaknesses in urban management lead to speculation, illegal land use, and slums. Development activities should impact the physical, environmental, economic, and social conditions of the community [29]. The development process often pays little attention to these matters. In the last few decades, we have observed a very rapid social transformation process in urban areas that has changed the morphology of Indonesian cities. This transformation has accelerated after the implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia since 1999. Land conflicts in urban areas do not end, so it is necessary to consolidate land as an activity to restructure land tenure, land use, and land acquisition to improve environmental quality and preserve natural resources and ecosystems by involving the comm...

This paper described urban formation process of the central part of Shizuoka City after two major disasters in 1940 and 1945 through clarification of realities of the implementation of land-readjustment project and private reconstruction activities. 
Bending principles of land readjustment method, the reconstruction works began in 1940 were done to meet “nation’s benefit” as well as longtime cherished dream at that time.
With the cease of the War in 1945, another reconstruction work started to realize ideal urban space once dreamt during the war time reconstruction. Thus, ideas, systems and methods of urban planning and urban formation in the pre-war time survived till 60s, sometimes with being modified in the contemporary background.

In the development sector, the need for land is increasing, resulting in the higher land value and land use mismatches. Urban areas have a relatively fixed area, while the need for land continues to increase. Weaknesses in urban management lead to speculation, illegal land use, and slums. Development activities should impact the physical, environmental, economic, and social conditions of the community [29]. The development process often pays little attention to these matters. In the last few decades, we have observed a very rapid social transformation process in urban areas that has changed the morphology of Indonesian cities. This transformation has accelerated after the implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia since 1999. Land conflicts in urban areas do not end, so it is necessary to consolidate land as an activity to restructure land tenure, land use, and land acquisition to improve environmental quality and preserve natural resources and ecosystems by involving the community to play an active role. This study aims to evaluate the extent to which land readjustment in Indonesia can improve the efficiency and productivity of morphological transformation of urban land use, the extent of community participation, and its alignments to low-income people and their handling of slum areas. This study uses qualitative exploratory research methods and normative juridical approach methods through library studies. It uses the legislative approach, fact approach, and conceptual approach and primary data in the form of interviews to complete library studies. The study results show that land readjustment can improve the efficiency and productivity of morphological transformation of urban land use optimally and it is an effective way that contributes to the spatial planning that is more just, integrated and sustainable.

Bài viết trao đổi về khả năng vận dụng công cụ ‘tái điều chỉnh đất đai’ nhằm tăng hiệu quả sử dụng đất đô thị sử dụng cách tiếp cận phát triển đồng thuận. Trong bối cảnh thị trường bất động sản đang tái cơ cấu, phải chăng đây là một trong những lời giải giống cách làm ‘dồn điền đổi thửa’ ở nông thôn nhằm giải quyết hậu quả quá trình đô thị phát triển kiểu xôi đỗ và giải phóng sức sáng tạo phát triển từ cộng đồng.

Currently there are number of issues facing urban region, such as population densification, deterioration in living environment, prevention from fire and other disasters, road traffic, buildings that do not meet quality requirements, unorganized urbanization etc. The most common solution to such issues is land re-planning. Land owners start participating in the land re-planning project by protesting /Sorenson 1999/. As a result of re-planning they give share from their land as well as many buildings, houses and businesses are required to move, thus land possessors want to estimate the benefits of re-planning project by the size of land contributed. To make it possible those impacted need to have secure land tenure for related land area. Justification Rapid urbanization in developed countries and population growth have been for many years the pressing issue, thus urban expansion has become a problem that needed urgent addressing for the last twenty years. (Devas and Rakodi 1993) Considering the current urbanization process in Ulaanbaatar city, extensive centralization creates long term unresolved issues. Therefore, it is possible to apply re-planning of land to ensure more effective use of current resources for social needs derived from increasing centralization, to prevent Ulaanbaatar city development in coming 10-20 years from delaying future social and economic development and to resolve other problems caused by rapid development. Although this method has number of advantages, in current situation, the issue related with securing land title is causing some limitations. Having hashaa (fence) and housing without official land title document means that property and business is not legally registered, its value cannot be estimated officially, nor sold out or serve as collateral for loan. /Soto 2004/ In this case those affected cannot even legally protest thus cannot receive benefits of re-planning. In other words, researchers have already identified that official property enables the owner to use it as collateral, exchange it for investment shares, is used for identifying address for acquisition of loan, tax and fees, and serves as location reference for trade, court and civil actions respectively /Good land administration-sustainable development 2011/. An efficient use of current resources is becoming a pressing need now, thus resolving the above mentioned limitations and implementing land re-planning will balance urban social needs and reduce poverty.

When a city expands land use at the fridges has to be converted into urban land use. Surrounding land has a fixed position and is non-urban by definition. Within Western Europe, an intriguing variety of systems for this land conversion are being applied. Cross-national exchange of planning experience is of great interest, but the specific national context and (planning) systems make it difficult to fully compare countries. Nevertheless these systems to a large extent have the same objective (i.e. urban expansion) and deal with similar entities, such as power, ownership, land value and public facilities. This paper provides a basisc model that represents the essence of this conversion of land use -its entities and its optional mechanisms - with the aim of contributing to a better cross-national understanding on instruments for city expansion. In adition, based on this understanding, we review some theories that may guide possible explanations for international variation.

This chapter focuses on the innovative public practices of capturing land value in urban development (i.e. public-value capturing). There are significant differences between England, Spain (region of Valencia) and the Netherlands. The English and especially the Spanish/Valencian public bodies manage to transfer the bill for paying and/or providing public infrastructure to property developers. Public infrastructure refers to: public roads and space, sewerage, public facilities and buildings, affordable and social housing, etc. In addition, the English and Spanish/Valencian public bodies manage to capture part of the value increase that accrues from re-zoning land. This contributes to the public budget and helps to improve the quality and quantity of public infrastructure. These differences among the countries are mainly the result of differences in their planning system: first the level of certainty about future development possibilities before negotiations between developers and local planning bodies take place; and second whether public bodies dispose of a land readjustment regulation to avoid dependence on private parties to provide the infrastructure.

La Ley de Suelo de 2007 establece un sistema de valoración de suelo que implica un profundo cambio respecto de la anterior normativa.
Este artículo expone como esta nueva legislación afecta a la legislación urbanística valencia y, en concreto, a la valoración de suelo en el Proyecto de Reparcelación.

In the development sector, the need for land is increasing, resulting in the higher land value and land use mismatches. Urban areas have a relatively fixed area, while the need for land continues to increase. Weaknesses in urban management lead to speculation, illegal land use, and slums. Development activities should impact the physical, environmental, economic, and social conditions of the community [29]. The development process often pays little attention to these matters. In the last few decades, we have observed a very rapid social transformation process in urban areas that has changed the morphology of Indonesian cities. This transformation has accelerated after the implementation of regional autonomy in Indonesia since 1999. Land conflicts in urban areas do not end, so it is necessary to consolidate land as an activity to restructure land tenure, land use, and land acquisition to improve environmental quality and preserve natural resources and ecosystems by involving the comm...

Este curso se enfoca en las teorías, políticas e instrumentos de planificación y gestión con un enfoque en el ámbito urbano. El curso busca revisar cómo se desarrolla la política urbana en instrumentos de planificación y gestión, tanto en el caso colombiano (niveles, escalas, normativa) como en el caso de países que son referentes a nivel global. De acuerdo con la agenda y el debate acerca de los diferentes mecanismos para planificar, gestionar y financiar las ciudades de los últimos 20 años. Al mismo tiempo, busca brindar un entrenamiento a los estudiantes con el fin de que entiendan las posibilidades de la gestión urbana y su financiamiento, a partir de la relación con las herramientas de planificación en el marco de la ley 388 de 1997. Los estudiantes desarrollarán ejercicios prácticos, con el fin de identificar las fortalezas y oportunidades de estos instrumentos, aplicados en casos concretos para ciudades grandes e intermedias. Se espera que, al finalizar el curso, los estudiantes tengan la capacidad de seleccionar los instrumentos más apropiados en situaciones específicas que se presenten en sus respectivas ciudades o ámbitos de trabajo. El curso incluye el manejo de algunas herramientas de sistemas de información geográfica, preparadas para el ejercicio de aplicación de los instrumentos.

The capital Kabul is growing at a fast pace than any other city in Afghanistan, it experienced a dramatic expansion over the past decade. The population has increased by almost 10% per year which caused a significant increase in the number of slums, as an unwanted consequence today informal settlements have covered about more than 69% of the city. This paper explains an afghan model of Land Readjustment which applied on an informal settlement area of Kabul with a very minimum compensation and contribution ratio. It appeared more applicable due to the preservation of historical buildings and low destruction cost.

Major earthquakes cause large scale devastation disrupting life, destroying homes, damaging properties and vital community infrastructure. Such events also offer opportunities for reorganizing neighborhoods and rebuilding disaster resilient communities. This article presents the case of reconstruction of Bhuj City in India following its devastation in the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, and showcases how consultative and planned intervention can rebuild better cities after a natural disaster. The land readjustment (LR) process was applied in reconstruction of a densely built, historically significant inner city area of Bhuj to transform it into a safer community resilient to disaster. LR, a micro area planning technique, is characterized as a strategy to carve out private lot sizes to create adequate public land for widening and straightening of streets, accommodating parks and amenities, and planning land lots and urban blocks …

There is an ongoing debate in the literature on urban policy networks about governance and, more specifically, the role of public bodies in urban policy implementation networks. This paper focuses on the specific debate in Dutch and Spanish academic and professional circles regarding property rights in land (hereafter property rights) and the need to separate development rights from property rights. The British nationalisation of development rights in 1947 is an important point of reference in these debates. This paper adds to these debates by providing empirical evidence about a land readjustment regulation that public bodies can use to modify the power relationships between public and private parties. This regulation can improve public value capturing by helping public bodies transfer the costs for public infrastructure and affordable housing to developers while capturing part of the enhanced economic value.