Maritime International Law

El ensayo analiza el Convenio sobre trabajo marítimo de 2006, y pone de manifiesto su originalidad dentro del marco de las fuentes de la OIT: en primer lugar, el Convenio sistematiza el entonces fragmentado panorama de convenios y recomendaciones sobre derechos de los trabajadores marítimos. Además, la intervención normativa de 2006 se caracteriza por su efectividad, sobre todo en lo que se refiere al derecho a la repatriación y a los controles por parte del Estado del Puerto y del Estado del Pabellón, no limitados a los buques que enarbolen bandera de un Estado ratificador. De todas formas, algunas criticidades siguen persistiendo, como la falta de reconocimiento del derecho de huelga y la genericidad del derecho al shore leave.

In the last decade, the first Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) have been tested and produced by private companies. The growing use of unmanned vessels seriously challenges the development of the whole international legal framework concerning navigation. In particular, these new means of maritime transport impose a deep reflection on their capability to concretely assist people in distress at sea. The present paper analyses how public international rules on rendering assistance at sea adapt to the utilization of MASS. Following a brief introduction, this work starts with a description of the rise of the technology of automation and control in the maritime field, in order to highlight the principal elements of novelty introduced by the use of MASS in the field of maritime transport. Subsequently, it reports and analyze the international rules regulating the duty over States of rendering assistance to people in distress at sea. In the third paragraph, the script deals with the issues rising from the application of the above-mentioned norms to the use of unmanned ships. More precisely, it discusses whether the absence of a master on board precludes the operability of these norms to the use of MASS, and, subsequently, which kind of assistance shall be effectively provided by ships whose design is not conceived to host persons on board. Finally, the last pages of this work provide conclusive reasoning emerged from the legal analysis previously exposed, also by addressing the relevance of economic interests in the definition of the level of assistance required by law.

Questa ricerca si rivolge all’analisi della normativa del trasporto transfrontaliero dei rifiuti nell'UE, al fine di considerare un problema di carattere socioeconomico e ambientale: l’inquinamento dei mari, nel caso specifico dell’Alto Adriatico, causato dalle operazioni di scarico a mare delle acque reflue e di sentina.
Il problema ha molte cause, conseguenze ed effetti, ma alla base c’è una grossa lacuna di carattere logistico-normativo che produce inefficienze: l’inefficacia del sistema integrato di raccolta, gestione, trasporto, conferimento e trattamento/smaltimento, soprattutto nei Paesi confinanti con l’Italia sul versante Est, come ad esempio la Slovenia.
Essendo invece l’Italia dotata di una disciplina in materia, prevedere una cooperazione più stretta fra i 2 Paesi potrebbe essere una strada per conseguire un migliore e più efficace ciclo della produzione, gestione e smaltimento finalizzato al recupero di questa tipologia di rifiuti pericolosi.
Prevedendo un sistema integrato tra tali fasi, sviluppate su diversi fronti del confine, con al centro di questo processo la promozione del trasporto marittimo di tale rifiuto si risolverebbero moltissime problematiche logistiche e risulterebbe meno complicato rispetto all’organizzazione di un trasporto via terra che invece creerebbe disagi dal punto di vista del traffico autostradale. 

In materia rileva la normativa dell’UE  che dà la possibilità di promuovere e stipulare questa più stretta cooperazione, andando a delineare protocolli condivisi ai fini di organizzare al meglio tutte le attività e rendere più chiare, trasparenti e facilmente applicabili le norme che regolerebbero le operazioni, omogeneizzando i relativi ordinamenti nazionali.
L’obiettivo finale dell’operazione dovrebbe essere un ciclo integrato e sostenibile di economia circolare che vedrebbe le navi non più costrette o incentivate a scaricare a mare il rifiuto per assenza di strutture adeguate che provocano poi la deroga per loro stesse per  recarsi in altro porto per conferire il rifiuto , ma anzi incentivate altresì a conferire il rifiuto secondo criteri rispettosi dell’ambiente, stoccandolo in Slovenia e trasportandolo in Italia via mare attraverso natante autorizzato, azzerando o diminuendo di molto tantissime procedure e dimezzando le emissioni di CO2 e l’impatto ambientale complessivo, per poi effettuare il trasporto finalizzato a conferire il rifiuto oleoso per il trattamento volto a fini di recupero, sia della componente oleosa che dell’acqua. L’olio diventerebbe così destinabile alla commercializzazione. L’H2O risulterebbe riutilizzabile in altri processi produttivi, e quindi aiutando nella riduzione degli sprechi e nella massimizzazione dell’utilizzo delle risorse.
Tale processo che sarà considerato nell’ambito della presente ricerca si definisce BlueGreen Waste Recovery Cycle – BG WRC.

Il BG WRC non è solo un insieme di procedure logistiche coordinate da una codificazione di un protocollo che fa riferimento a una normativa europea: ma qualcosa in più.
Per apprezzare a pieno la filosofia che risiede dietro la riflessione che ha portato all’elaborazione dell’idea fondante del BG WRC ho ritenuto fondamentale coinvolgere come correlatore il Dott. Furio Mattiussi, Operations Manager della Crismani Koper e membro del CDA del Gruppo Crismani, nonché mio datore di lavoro col quale fin dal periodo di tirocinio curriculare ho seguito il tema del trasporto e dello smaltimento delle acque di sentina.
Gruppo Crismani è un gruppo multinazionale con sede in Italia, Slovenia e Tunisia specializzato nel campo disinquinamento industriale ed economia circolare: una realtà ricca, ancorata ai valori saldi del fondatore Paolo Crismani ma proiettata verso il futuro fatto di innovazione ed entusiasmo dove mi sento onorato di prestare servizio come consulente responsabile per le relazioni istituzionali e la comunicazione integrata.
L’obiettivo finale è quello di evidenziare, anche all’esito dell’analisi di tali problematiche, il pensiero europeo: pensare in maniera europea vuol dire porre come fulcro di ogni ragionamento la cooperazione, in ogni campo, concetto alla base del processo di integrazione europea, ed inoltre sfruttare criticità e punti di forza da ambo i lati di un confine per trarne opportunità di sviluppo, finalizzate alla creazione di valore e nuovo benessere sociale, economico e ambientale.
Partendo da un semplice esempio di cooperazione transfrontaliera, verificata l’efficacia della stessa, si potrà toccare con mano il potenziale di una cooperazione sempre più stretta e integrata fra le 2 zone di confine di Italia e Slovenia: riprendere il progetto già intrapreso del GECT non solo appare un’opportunità interessante, ma soprattutto un orizzonte ineludibile per il futuro dell’area dell’Alto Adriatico.

The main purpose of this article is to present the maritime delimitation dispute in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, submitted before the International Court of Justice in 2014. Hence, the full delimitation processes (including the three-stage methodology currently applicable in delimitation processes by international courts and tribunals) will be explained in this article. Due to the complexity of the dispute between both neighboring countries, spanning the Central American isthmus, involving delimitation in two bodies of water (namely in the Pacific and Caribbean), both delimitations have been analyzed separately. Additionally, brief considerations concerning the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in Hamburg are presented.

This article analyses specific provisions within the Greek legal order that guide the naval commander’s conduct during an armed conflict at sea. It demonstrates that these provisions do not adequately satisfy the requirement to ensure respect for the law of naval warfare and to contribute to the discontinuance, during such times, of the violations of international rules on the assistance of persons in distress at sea by State organs. In this manner, it points to the necessity of an extensive discussion among legal scholars about the dissemination of international humanitarian law in Greece. This process could lead to the establishment of a comprehensive national military manual that would demonstrate the spirit of abidance to the obligation to respect and ensure respect for the rules of this law in Greece’s maritime realm during peace and warfare, and play an instrumental role in the enhancement of safety for persons and objects at sea during naval conflict.

This thesis aims to analyse the role and the importance of the insurance policies in structured finance deals such as Project Finance and Project Bond in respect of the construction and operation of ships, energy and oil & gas projects, in accordance with the common law, marine and energy insurance, ship finance aspects and international market practice.

The tripartite between bank, shipowner and insurer not only provides integrated mechanism to transfer certain risks in case of an insured event but will also enable an additional and qualified diligence to be peformed by all parties involved.

Further, as will be presented, the history of insurance is intrinsically connected to the maritime adventures' history. The development of the maritime business is also directly related with the availability of credit by the market, from banks and investors, who also expects to protect as much as possible the borrowed amounts or capital invested.

The thesis also provides a synoptic overview of the main concerns from the banks and shipowner’s perspective regarding the risks involved and the insurances that are usually contracted, or should be considered, with the objective to optimize the bankability of a project and the deal. Notwithstanding the fact that eliminating all the risks is certainly not possible or feasible, banks and shipowners do have the option to transfer part of the risks to the insurance market, reducing significantly some exposures which will impact in a positive way the ship financing costs, in addition to avoid potential litigations between the parties.

La presente ricerca intende analizzare il più problematico e controverso anello della catena operativa dei soccorsi in mare (Search and Rescue o SAR), ossia l'individuazione del cosiddetto "Place of Safety".
Nello specifico, l'istituto giuridico del luogo sicuro di sbarco è ricostruito partendo dalla sua nascita, a seguito del "Tampa affair" del 2001, fino ad arrivare alla contemporanea pandemia da "coronavirus".
Ulteriori aspetti trattati nel presente lavoro sono gli effetti e le conseguenze giuridiche generatesi nella prassi dei soccorsi a causa della diversa interpretazione di "Place of Safety" da parte di alcuni Stati affacciati sul Mediterraneo centrale; tra di essi, specifico rilievo è dato a Paesi quali Italia, Malta e Libia.
Oltre ad analizzare la questione del luogo sicuro di sbarco, a metà tra la giurisdizione dello Stato costiero sui propri porti e il rispetto del principio del "non refoulement", il presente lavoro offre una panoramica su altre questioni legate alla ricerca e soccorso in mare, quali: l'evoluzione della disciplina in materia di ricerca e soccorso in mare, il problema della territorializzazione delle regioni SAR, il principio della gratuità del soccorso di persone e il programma politico dei "porti chiusi", attuato negli ultimi anni dall'esecutivo italiano.

The influence of the ice contiguous to the land territory in the delimitation of maritime spaces The presence of ice contiguous to the land territory presents several difficulties in determining or tracing the baselines. The presence of ice may indeed have posed technical difficulties in determining the baselines. Some ice sheets were also able to interest and question the legal status to be attributed to them. Faced with all these doubts, part of the doctrine has been able to provide several elements of answers to face these difficulties. The first historical difficulty was the impossibility of determining the separation of terrestrial space from maritime space when the latter was located under a layer of ice. Subsequently, another difficulty, more legal, was to determine the legal status to be granted to these ice spaces. The idea may seem surprising or even outdated, but the difficulties in determining the baselines due to the presence of contiguous ice initially represented a real difficulty. If the presence of these ice sheets questions whether or not they are taken into account in the determination process, this presence also questions the location of the outer limit of the terrestrial territory when it is located under a thick layer of ice. This difficulty finds its meaning in particular when there are ice barriers. The difficulty in determining exactly where maritime space begins and land space ends will naturally lead to difficulty in drawing baselines. These must follow the coast with regard to Articles 5 and 7 of the Montego Bay Convention. This was for a time a difficulty encountered in the past 1. Now, modern techniques allow the coastline of a terrestrial space to be determined with precision. The example in the field is Denmark, which in 2004 undertook to modify the baselines of Greenland following the entry into force of the Montego Bay Convention on 16 November 2004. Denmark therefore modified its baselines 2 with assistance from the Danish Space Agency (DTU Space) based on old known baselines and estimates provided by electromagnetic and satellite photos. This combination of methods enabled Denmark to accurately determine the position of the coasts and thus to modify some baselines. It also

This article contents a study of relevant judgement and legislation about the flag of convenience within the European Union and its international legal framework, therefore decisions from the European Court of Justice has been studied as well as the role played by shipping regulators which seek to avoid infringements through Flag of Convenience vessels.

Comme le disait Maurice Hauriou, « l'Etat est un phénomène spatial ». En d'autres termes, afin de pouvoir exister, un Etat a besoin d'un territoire sur lequel il va exercer sa souveraineté. Cette zone géographique définie qui est régie par la compétence territoriale exclusive de l'Etat est constituée de son territoire national terrestre, aérien et maritime. La mer a traditionnellement été un espace stratégique et économique majeur et n'a jamais été une notion étrangère au droit international. Toutefois, le vrai intérêt qu'évoque la mer n'a été révélé qu'à partir du milieu du 20 e siècle, quand la meilleure maîtrise des connaissances scientifiques et l'évolution de la technologie d'exploitation de la mer ont transformé et bouleversé les règles appelées à régir le statut des espaces maritimes, et en l'occurrence le régime des activités menées sur l'espace maritime. En effet, lorsque de nouvelles ressources naturelles étaient découvertes au fond des mers, la question s'est posée de savoir à qui appartient la mer, et en conséquence le plateau continental est devenu une zone cruciale pour les intérêts d'Etats côtiers, mais également pour celles d'Etats non côtiers.
L’apparition et le développement de la notion du plateau continental doivent être considérés tout d’abord dans l’optique des recherches de l’extension de la compétence territoriale de l’Etat souverain sur son espace maritime. Nous avons témoigné du problème de délimitation des plateaux continentaux des Etats voisins qui avaient du mal à partager ce nouvel espace présentant des avantages politiques et économiques, mais aussi des nouveaux défis liés à l’exploitation du plateau continental. En effet, d’une part l’apparition et le développement de la notion de plateau continental a apporté plusieurs avantages pour les Etats côtiers, lorsque d’une autre part elle a apporté de nombreux inconvénients concernant tous les Etats, dont il conviendrait d’examiner à la lumière des différents défis et perspectives en jeu.

Η απόφαση του Ακυρωτικού έκρινε επί ενός εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέροντος ζητήματος, το οποίο σπάνια εμφανίζεται στην πράξη. Το επίμαχο ερώτημα ήταν αν είναι ορθή η εφαρμογή αλλοδαπού δικαίου σχετικά με διαδικαστικές πράξεις που έλαβαν χώρα στην Ελλάδα, και έχουν άμεση επίπτωση στο ζήτημα της παραγραφής της ένδικης αξίωσης. Συγκεκριμένα, το κρίσιμο θέμα αφορούσε στην παραίτηση της αγωγής της αναιρεσείουσας ενώπιον ελληνικού δικαστηρίου, και την αξιολόγηση της διαδικαστικής πράξης κατά το ελληνικό ή το εφαρμοστέο αγγλικό δίκαιο. Η πλευρά της αναιρεσείουσας υποστήριξε ότι έπρεπε να εφαρμοστεί το εσωτερικό μας δίκαιο, στοιχείο που θα οδηγούσε σε εφαρμογή του άρθρου 263 § 2 ΑΚ. Αντίθετα, η αναιρεσίβλητη επέμεινε σε όλα τα στάδια της δίκης, ότι η επιλογή του αγγλικού δικαίου καταλαμβάνει και το ζήτημα της διακοπής της παραγραφής, και δικαιώθηκε.

This paper stems from a recent decision by the Indian Supreme Court as to whether the criminal courts of the Indian State of Kerala have jurisdiction over two Italian marines accused of the killing of two Indian fishermen. The analysis is critical of the Court’s reasoning and findings over the two main defences raised by the accused: namely, the lack of jurisdiction of the coastal state on the basis of the law of the sea and in relation to the customary rule on the jurisdictional immunity of military personnel for acts carried out in their line of duty. Finally, this study is also critical of the operational decision by the Indian Supreme Court in providing for the establishment of a specific domestic court deemed by it competent to entertain its jurisdiction over the cause in view of its international nature.

Eurasia (Caucasus, Caspian Sea and Central Asia) is a natural link connecting Europe and China, in commercial, logistics, transport and energetic issues, while avoiding Russia, Iran and sanctions. For over twenty-five years, the legal definition of the Caspian Sea remained unresolved. In 2018, the five riparian Caspian Sea states adopted the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea.The Convention draws heavily from maritime law, yet avoids defining the Caspian Sea as a sea or a lake and stipulates it as an endorheic basin in specific charts. The Convention is pragmatic, to jointly exploit subsoil [hydrocarbon] resources and lay pipelines without demarcation mechanisms, yet enabling possible restrictions on account of environmental issues.
Resumen: Eurasia (Cáucaso, Mar Caspio y Asia Central) es un vínculo natural conectando Europa y China en temas comerciales, logísticos, energéticos y de transporte, evitando Rusia, Irán y sanciones. Por más de 25 años, el estatuto legal del Mar Caspio permaneció irresoluto. En 2018, los cinco países ribereños del Mar Caspio adoptaron la Convención sobre el Estatuto Jurídico del Mar Caspio. La Convención se apoya fuertemente en derecho marítimo, evita definir si el Mar Caspio es un lago o un mar, y estipula que, es una cuenca endorreica establecida en mapas específicos. La Convención es pragmática, para conjuntamente explotar recursos submarinos [de hidrocarburos] y colocar ductos sin demarcación fronteriza, permitiendo restricciones ambientales.

With rocket-propelled grenades propped on their shoulders and AK-47s on their hips, pirates operating off the coast of Somalia on November 5, 2005, were poised to strike. A luxury cruise ship en route to Kenya on a quiet Saturday morning presented an opportune target. While the crew of the Seabourn Spirit successfully thwarted the attack, the attempted hijacking highlighted the vulnerability of ships in the Gulf of Aden and presaged a modern resurgence in piracy. Between 2006 and 2010, nearly 1,600 ships were attacked worldwide, illicitly securing hundreds of millions of dollars in both ransom payments and stolen cargo.

The operational and diplomatic cooperation that has emerged to align action against Somali pirates is emblematic of a new period in international maritime security partnering. Sustaining the impressive and considerable efforts - which have made a positive difference in reducing the success rate of attacks - along with building capacity, expanding land-based efforts to pursue pirate leaders, and addressing financial issues, particularly with regional states in the lead, will be critical in transforming an environment that has now experienced a generation of impunity.

My research analyzes the Piracy in Maritime Security and its International Law Dimension. The research will consist of four main parts: A Historical Background of Piracy, the Piracy in the Context of International Law History, Contemporary Piracy in Maritime Security and the Contemporary Provisions about Piracy in International Law. With the three context of piracy, I intend to examine the issue from its different but inter-related arguments to better perceive how the piracy emerged as a maritime threat in history and how it has been perceived as the most outstanding scope of the contemporary maritime security issue which is one of the integral parts of the non-traditional security. That’s why, the conception of maritime security is not only described with naval threats such as size of naval power of a state, naval capabilities or the operational power of a state’s navy in international naval exercises as UN and NATO do. Apart from traditional naval power and threat perceptions, state have to now cope with the most troublesome non-traditional threats on the seas, piracy. This term comprises all the illegal way of activities on the high seas including racketeering, smuggling, plundering, seizing and most importantly interrupting commercial and economic interests of the states on the critical-strategic transit routes. Piracy, therefore, must be seen as not only a robbery act of a group of unauthorized crew but also an international maritime threat which damage national economic interests.

Menjaga keamanan laut sebagai batas teritorial sangatlah penting untuk diperhatikan, mulai dari mengamankan melalui cara militer, dan juga mengamankan jalur perdagangan. Akan tetapi ancaman terhadap keamanan laut selalu ada dan memiliki kemungkinan untuk terus ada selama ada motif dan kepentingan dari pihak yang berkepentingan. Memang, laut yang dimiliki suatu negara telah sepenuhnya mendapat kedaulatan akan kepemilikan dan penguasaan lautnya, namun ancaman akan selalu muncul, untuk mengusik negara tersebut. Dalam studi keamanan maritim, permasalahan terkait keamanan maritim seperti pembajakan, penyelundupan, terorisme, pencurian ikan secara ilegal dsb selalu menjadi ancaman terhadap kehidupan bahari. Permasalahan tersebut, kebanyakan terjadi lantaran motif financial gain. Hal tersebut kemudian menjadi pembahasan menarik bagi penstudi maritim untuk dikaji. Untuk itu, permasalahan, isu dan solusi tersebut akan penulis bahas dalam tulisan ini.

En el presente artículo, se hace una descripción de la normativa de derecho público que específicamente regula la remoción de los restos náufragos de los buques: en el ámbito internacional, el "Convenio Internacional de Nairobi sobre la remoción de restos náufragos" del 2007, y del ámbito nacional el Decreto- Ley N° 14.343, y las Leyes N° 17.121 y 16.320, algunas reflexiones críticas al respecto de la aplicación de la mencionada normativa. Este artículo será proximamente publicado en la Revista de Estudios Marítimos de la Asociación Argentina de Derecho Marítimo.

For centuries, the maritime industry has continuously improved its glue to improve safety, efficiency, and profitability. The product of technological development, autonomous vessels are ready to revolutionize the maritime sector by promising enhancing profitability and minimizing ecosystems degradation costs. Ships are expected to navigate more consistently and efficiently if con-trolled by software rather than humans because, if everything works as intended, it would reduce accidents at sea, as well as spilling oil pollution at sea resulting from a collision between two ships, or a shipwreck. Beyond the advantages such the safety, ecology protecting, operational efficiency, and energy savings, the arrival of autonomous maritime systems could radically transform the regime of liability, taking into account that navigation is ensured from a land control center where ships are monitored and controlled remotely.

International Law through the adoption of worldwide accepted treaties has managed to provide stable and justice solutions to various issues of paramount importance to States and secure a peaceful development of their interests both in the High Seas and around their coasts. And although this legal arrangement seemed to be working harmoniously for decades specific incidents, like the Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 along with technological maritime developments challenge the existing legal structure signalling the need for the recalibration of the legal framework in order these new datum to be regulated.

Bu kitapta, deniz ticaretinin temel müesseselerinden olan kurtarma hukuku, kurtarma ücreti ve ücretin belirlenmesine etki eden faktörler 6102 sayılı TTK ve 1989 tarihli Londra Uluslararası Kurtarma Konvansiyonu çerçevesinde ele alınarak doktrinsel tartışmalar, örnek olaylar ve yargı kararları ışığında açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır.

Kitap, kurtarmanın tarihinin aktarılması ile başlamaktadır. Denizde kurtarma faaliyetlerinin kendine özgü doğası göz önüne alındığında, kurtarma ücretinin belirlenmesine yönelik formül oluşturmak zor olduğundan, somut olaya göre değişkenlik gösterebilecek etkenlerin değerlendirilmesi ve ücretin menfaatler dengesi çerçevesinde hakkaniyet ve teşvik ilkeleri gözetilerek belirlenmesi önemlidir.

Kitapta köklü uygulamalar yanında güncel gelişmeler dikkate alınarak kurtarma ücretinin belirlenmesinde etkili faktörler kapsamlı şekilde ele alınmaya çalışılmıştır. Nitekim düzenlemelerde kurtarma ücretinin belirlen-mesine yönelik çerçeve kriterler öngörülmüş olsa da bunlar tahdidi değildir. Bu amaçla 6102 sayılı TTK ve 1989 Londra Konvansiyonu esas olarak kaynak alınmış ve aralarındaki farkların tespiti yapılmaya çalışılmıştır.

Ayrıca bazı önemli hususlar da ele alınmıştır. Uluslararası kurtarma sözleşmesinde yer alan tartışmalı "taşıt (craft)" konusu incelenmiştir.

Yine, kurtarma hukukunda günümüzde önem kazanan bir konu olan "insansız su araçları (insansız gemiler)" kurtarma hukuku kapsamında değerlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır.

Yine, önemini hiç kaybetmeyen sorumluluk kurtarması (liability salvage) ve kurtarma ücretine etkisi konusundaki tartışmalar, eğilimler ve uygulamadan örneklerin yol gösterici olarak aktarılması amaçlanmıştır.

Kurtarma Ücreti, Özel Tazminat, Scopic Klozu, Çevresel Kurtarma, Sorumluluk Kurtarması, Kurtarma Sözleşmesi, Londra Uluslararası Kurtarma Sözleşmesi, İnsan Kurtarma, İnsansız Gemiler, Otonom Gemiler, Salwage Award, Salvage Reward, SCOPIC Clause, special compensation, Environmental Salvage, Ship Salvage, Liability Salvage, Salvage Contract, Salvage Agreement, International Convention on Salvage, Human Rescue, Salvage, Unmanned Vessels, Autonomous Vessels, Brice, Kennedy & Rose, the law of salvage

Greenpeace members who in 2018 boarded the M/T Stolt Tenacity in the Gulf of Cadiz and the M/V Mermaid Searcher in the Port of Taranaki, New Zealand, continued a pattern of conduct in the maritime environment that implicates navigational freedoms, human rights, and security. Vessel interference by nonstate actors—activities that could jeopardize safety and violate the law—represent an urgent challenge to transnational security as well as high seas freedoms.

The ability to express contrary views lawfully is largely protected by national laws as well as multinational human rights instruments. However, synchronized attacks on vessels, the ramming of ships, and noncompliant boardings are illegal activities. Despite striking differences between peaceful expressions and vessel interference, an uneven judicial methodology exists with respect to the latter. A patchwork approach has resulted from a predominant focus by some jurists on the propriety of maritime law enforcement responses, along with misguided considerations, rather than primarily on whether the protest activity was lawful, undermined freedom of movement or prejudiced the legitimate economic interests of others. This article advocates for the use of ten judicial considerations when examining vessel interference to better position courts to take a holistic judicial approach to victim impact, commerce, security, and navigational freedoms.

During the 1990s, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict underwent profound transformations which affected the diplomatic relations between both parties and also among other states. Other states were often the mediators who were and still are trying to solve the dispute between Israel and Palestine. Mediators have been always important for the Israeli-Palestine conflict. These relations often proceeded slowly, sometimes with disruptions, sometimes even with no results, with delays and even with small scale conflicts; in other words, an “interlocked conflict”. My purpose in this essay will be to examine different kinds of mediators for peace in the area, but I will mainly focus on some of the issues of mediation. A successful mediation between Israeli and Palestinians will depend on timing, negotiation styles and biased and unbiased mediation. In my essay, after having explained the theory of mediation, I will describe both sides’ interests during negotiations in the 1990s and 2000s with the presence of mediators, particularly the United States.

On the first of January 2020, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) amended regulation 14 of the MARPOL Convention, Annex VI, regarding the prevention of atmospheric pollution from ships. More in particular, the revised text of the disposition provides a new delimitation of the percentage of Sulphur contained in the oil used by ships from 3,5% m/m to 0,5% m/m. The introduction of new international prescription (“IMO 2020”) aims to reduce the environmental impact of shipping activities. While the consequences of “IMO 2020” are constantly analyzed from an economical perspective, until now few attention was paid to the legal relevance of the adoption of this international rule. This paper deals with the implications of “IMO 2020” to the international legal system on the prevention of pollution from ships. Following a brief description of the aforementioned international legal framework, this paper analyzes the normative content of “IMO 2020” and its enforcement through States actions. Finally, it reports some conclusions regarding the possible consequences deriving from the entry into force of such new limit of Sulphur emissions provided by MARPOL Convention Annex VI.

The refugee crisis and forced migration is considered as a great challenge for the twenty first century. The protection of the rights of refugees creates some obligation to the asylum countries. According to the Convention relating to the status of refugee, "A refugee is someone who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion ,nationality

Perjanjian internasional di bidang kelautan yang sejak dulu telah dirundingkan, kini berkembang dengan pesat. Puncak dari berbagai perundingan mengenai masalah kelautan adalah diadakannya Konferensi PBB mengenai Hukum Laut pada tahun 1982 di Montego Bay, jamaka. Dalam konferensi tersebut telah ditandatangani suatu perjanjian internasional yang mencakup hampir seluruh permasalahan di bidang kelautan. Perjanjian internasional ini dikenal dengan nama UNCLOS.
Pemerintah Indonesia sudah sejak lama turut aktif dalam berbagai perundingan  mengenai terbentuknya perjanjian internasional di bidang kelautan......

Coral reefs are popularly known as the rainforest of the ocean world and they are also home to one-third of the marine species. But a startling depletion has been witnessed in the number of coral reefs in last few decades due to many reasons like ocean acidification, bleaching of corals, outbreaks of coral eating starfish, dynamite and cyanide fishing, illegal poaching of exclusive corals and many more. Coral reefs are foundation of sea life and without them, sea will be blood without heart-completely useless. The year 1997 was declared as "Year of the Reef" for spreading worldwide awareness with regard to aquatic ecosystem which is under attack by the humans due to their undying lust for exploitation of our nature. These reefs are of great significance as they provide high biological richness and products and services to human beings.1 It has been marked that before 1998 the harm caused to coral reefs could not be well noted as there were not efficient techniques to go underwater and the marine scientists usually relied on guesswork and anecdotal evidence which gave a rough figure that about 10% of the reefs were dead and another 30% would die in the upcoming 20-30 years if precautions are not taken. 2 The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) was formed in 1996 and the main purpose of the organization was to collect, produce and spread the information about the coral reef health and suggest all the nations for a precise reef assessment. This organizations will help the nations to keep a check on the deteriorating condition of the reefs and as per the 2004 GCRMN report it was claimed that about 20% of the world's corals were dead and about another 20% were facing an impending hazard due to the ignorant human activities.3 The existing international legislations with respect to sea law and coral reefs are neither sufficient and nor are they implemented appropriately. Even though, the countries are suggested to have regulations for conservation of coral reefs and other environment-based laws. There are multilateral nature related agreements ratified and adopted by countries with the backing of international and intergovernmental organizations. But all these agreements can be fruitful only if they are implemented in all stages of the country-local, state and national level.4 Due to lack of initiatives and awareness regarding the depletion, this arena is often ignored by majority of the countries and thus it is important to get a legally enforceable uniform regime for preservation of reefs and aquatic life, which should be binding for all the member nations. The major reasons for degradation of reefs can be classified into three categories-natural causes, direct human causes and indirect human causes.

Within the global oil shipping sector, flag states that inadequately fulfil obligations to effectively exert jurisdiction over vessels flying their flags have been criticized for facilitating the existence of substandard ships. This paper examines the topic of flag-use and its potential association with oil spill risk. Flags most associated with accidental oil spills were identified through comparing the flag composition of the global oil tanker fleet with that of vessels that have been involved in the 100 largest tanker spills on record. Vessels flying flags of states that have exhibited consistent patterns of failure in compliance with international obligations, defined here as ‘flags of non-compliance’ (FoNCs), were found to be significantly more common amongst the vessels that have been involved in spill incidents. However, this was dependent on how the Liberian flag was qualified throughout the time period considered. If measures are being sought to reduce the risk of tanker involvement in large-scale oil spills further, vessel owners should be deterred from registering with FoNCs that are highly accessible to foreign owners, and political measures should be taken to put pressure on flag states that operate all other FoNCs to improve effective jurisdiction over ships flying these flags.