Normality

In this paper I discuss in a critical manner what I believe to be some of the more interesting contributions of Anthony Steinbock’s book Home and Beyond: Generative Phenomenology after Husserl. I will thus refer mainly to his clarification of the constitution of familiar and alien objects or states of affairs through appropriation and transgression. In connection with this I will try to put forward some of the advantages and implications of a phenomenological approach to the problem of historicity in terms of generativity.  However, I will also discuss some of the limitations and problems of Steinbock’s approach. I believe that most if not all of these problems are related to his understanding of the relationship between static, genetic and generative phenomenological methods. Therefore I will devote some lines to discuss this issue and to rethink some of Steinbock’s main theses under the light of another way of understanding the relationship between these methods as well as the task of the philosophical inquiry proposed by phenomenology.

In phenomenology, normality is neither an objectively measurable average nor a mere historical or social construct. Rather than being understood from without, looked at from the outside of lived experiences, normality is approached from within as a condition and mode of lived experience. In the first part of the paper, I will show why it is relevant to turn to a phenomenological investigation of normality if one is interested in normativity. This perspective, so I will argue, is needed if one wants to understand not only how external norms actually become part of subjective experience but also how norms develop in the first place through repeated practices. As such, the experience of normality, understood here as consisting of selfevident feelings of orientation and familiarity, can be interpreted as the result of an operative normativity. In the second part, I will present Husserl's theory of normality in more detail in order to demonstrate how it could be applied to a more systematic investigation of normality and norms on different genetic levels. Lived normality is seen here as a dynamic and fragile system of balances; a constant attempt to achieve an equilibrium with one's environment and fellow subjects. (Re)turning to normality allows us to see normativity at work, embedded in the need for constant development, appropriation, and transformations of regular structures in experience.

Abstract. Let k be a field and let F⊂ k [x1,..., xn] be a finite set of monomials whose exponents lie on a positive hyperplane. We give necessary conditions for the normality of both the Rees algebra R [Ft] and the subring k [F]. If the monomials in F have the same ...

English follows:
L’approccio biomedico alla malattia di Alzheimer è attualmente caratterizzato da una forte enfasi sulla diagnosi precoce. L’intento è di individuare condizioni di declino cognitivo potenzialmente passibili di evolvere in demenza, quali il Mild Cognitive Impairment (“deterioramento cognitive lieve”), concetto controverso all’interno della comunità scientifica anche rispetto al suo uso clinico. Le questioni critiche rievocano i temi centrali del dibattito pluridecennale che ha investito la categoria di malattia di Alzheimer fin dalla sua creazione nel 1910, rispetto all’ambiguità del suo rapporto con i processi cerebrali dell’invecchiamento “normale”. Questo libro si basa su una ricerca etnografica svolta in un centro disturbi della memoria dedicato alla diagnosi precoce del deterioramento cognitivo ed esamina il ruolo svolto dalla nozione di “normalità” nell’evoluzione del discorso biomedico sulla malattia di Alzheimer e nelle pratiche clinico-diagnostiche contemporanee. La storia di questa categoria nosologica e le azioni concrete che ruotano intorno ad essa – politico-scientifiche, economico-finanziarie e finanche soggettive ed esperienziali – ci introducono nelle più ampie dinamiche di legittimazione del sapere scientifico e di costruzione della realtà medica, al loro potere di influenzare, non sempre suscitando piena adesione, rappresentazioni e vissuti della corporeità, del binomio salute/malattia e della soglia tra “normale” e “patologico”.

Current biomedical approach to Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by a strong emphasis on early diagnosis. The aim is to identify conditions of cognitive decline that might eventually evolve into a dementia, such as the condition called Mild Cognitive Impairment. Within the scientific community, it is a controversial concept even as regards its clinical use. Critical issues recall the main topics of the long-standing debate on the category of Alzheimer’s disease, risen since its creation in 1910, and the ambiguity of its relations with the cerebral processes of the “normal” aging.
This book is based on an ethnographic research carried out in an Italian memory clinic. Ethnographic interviews focused on opinions, visions, practices related to MCI, AD, and normal aging have been conducted with a psychologist, neurologists, and family doctors.
The book analyzes the role played by the notion of “normality” both in the biomedical discourse on Alzheimer’s disease and on the current clinical and diagnostic practices.
It takes into consideration the history and evolutions of the nosographic entity AD in order to explore the actions - at the same time scientific, political, economic, academic, subjective, biographical, ideological, plural, and changeable in time and space – that currently revolve around it. This approach gives us a deep insight into the broader dynamics of legitimacy of the scientific knowledge and the medical reality, into their power to affect – even though not always producing consent - representations and experiences of the body, the health and the disease, and the threshold between the “normal” and the “pathological

Normality is commonplace. We routinely distinguish normal weather from hurricanes and droughts; normal prices from bargains and rip-offs; and normal behavior from eccentricity and oddity. Not only do we form judgments about normality with ease, but facts about what is normal serve as a reliable guide to navigating the world. Knowing the normal presentation of a disease can help a doctor to successfully diagnose a patient. Knowing the normal level of rush hour traffic can help a commuter to arrive on time. And knowing the normal migration patterns of birds can help ornithologists to identify species. Our subject in this paper is the modality of normality. Items of a variety of types can be evaluated for normality. For example, we can readily compare the
normality of individuals, kinds and properties. Gerald Ford was more normal, for a president, than Richard Nixon. Weasels are more normal, for mammals, than wombats. And being tall is more normal, for basketball players, than being short. The modality of normality, in contrast, has to do with properties of states of affairs.There may be interesting connections between the properties of individuals, kinds and properties and the modality of normality. However, in what follows, our attention will be focused exclusively on facts about the latter.

While embodiment is crucial for Husserl’s theory of perception and his account of empathy, it is also the beating heart of his transcendental philosophy. For Husserl, there is neither a purely formal transcendental ego, nor pure forms of intuition. Transcendental subjectivity must necessarily be embodied to make (spatially and temporally concordant) experience possible and thereby to guarantee an objective perception of the world and of others. This article will discuss three dimensions of normality and objectivity as embodied space. It will start by introducing the double constitution of the body as both Leib and Körper, which defines the primordial spatiality of embodiment. It will then highlight the general necessity of a sensing and moving body for the constitution of space and for a concordant and optimal disclosure of the world. The third part explains embodiment in terms of concrete subjectivity, hence articulating the relevance of the body for habitually inhabiting the world and for developing a concordant and stable identity. Finally, the role of the body for intersubjective normality and objectivity will be interrogated. Embodiment, as I will argue, must firstly be understood as a general transcendental condition of every possible experience and objectivity. Secondly, it must be understood as a genetic condition of individual (and intersubjective) experience, that is, as concrete a priori. As such, embodiment dictates the experience of individual subjects and corresponds to a habitual style of experience.

Lancaster Disability Studies Conference (2018), Lancaster, United Kingdom.

Abstract:

The aim of this paper is to analyse popular neuroimaging of the (dis)able(d) brain as a cultural phenomenon, as well as to explore how there has been, during the last decades, a subtle but important change in the way the “normal” brain is depicted in popular science. Popular neuroimaging is introduced and used as an empirical basis to analyse what Fiona Kumari Campbell sees as a critic against ableism. The empirical material consists of two British popular science documentaries (both produced by the BBC) on the topic of the brain: Human Brain (1983), and Brain Story (2004). The article argues that the position of normality and able-bodiedness have changed as the development of brain scanning techniques has emerged. Specially, there seem to have been a change in how the discursive logic of the brain is visualised and talked about. New frameworks for understanding normality, disability and vulnerability have appeared. Furthermore, we claim that this shift needs to be studied from a theoretical perspective that analyses the discursive logic of the (dis)able(d) brain where an indistinction transpires and creates a form of vulnerable normality.

Der folgende Beitrag möchte das Ineinander von Erfahrung und Diskurs als leiblich erfahrene und repräsentierte Normalität explizieren. Zunächst wird aus phänomenologischer Perspektive untersucht, was eine normale Erfahrung ausmacht. Zentral ist hierbei eine habituelle Normalität, die einen unmittelbaren Umgang und Orientierung mit der Umwelt ermöglicht. Mit Hilfe von diskursiven Ansätzen (Foucault und Butler) soll dies kritisch hinterfragt werden. Inwiefern lässt sich Normalität auch als Normalisierung beschreiben, in welcher sich gewaltsam und doch unbemerkt herrschende Normen und Machtverhältnisse in die Körper einschreiben?

Neste artigo, o propósito é articular o depoimento de jovens de 15 a 25 anos com o que deles falam os diferentes produtos da mídia, especialmente a televisão. A partir da escuta de estudantes de escolas públicas e privadas, selecionou-se um tema principal para a análise dos modos de existência jovem: a construção do…

Almost 50 million EU citizens are affected by energy poverty, which is generally defined as
inadequate use of domestic energy services. However, while extensive research has been
conducted on the implications that some dimensions of energy poverty, such as high energy
costs and cold homes have on households in the EU, very little is known about this in the
context of Norway. Norway is one of the most income-equal countries in the world as well as
a country with historically low electricity prices. Despite this however, if some Norwegian
households continue to live in energy poverty, they may endure the double trauma of being
energy poor while not being recognized as such. The aim of this qualitative study is to explore
how Norwegian households experience, cope and make changes in response to energy
poverty, from changing their use of energy services to maintaining social relations and a
preferred lifestyle. The main research question guiding the thesis is: how do vulnerable
households in Norway experience energy poverty in everyday life? The data material for the
study was collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with 18 members from 17
households experiencing energy poverty. The interviewees were recruited using a variation of
recruitment approaches, such as gatekeepers, snowballing and hand-picking cases. Findings
are analyzed and discussed drawing on concepts from practice theory. The study finds that
lack of financial independence, social capital in the form of family, social and material
dimensions to housing and energy consumption as well as normative expectations of energy
use have implications for how energy poverty is experienced by households. Most
interviewees have little perceived agency to ameliorate their situation. A group of younger
interviewees feel marginalized having to limit energy use extensively, cut food costs, rely on
financial support from parents and isolate themselves to pay high energy costs in the colder
months. They feel unable to live “normal” lives and struggle with feelings of shame,
embarrassment, and stigma. A group of older interviewees are less vulnerable having more
stable sources of income, drawing on cheap or free firewood as well as having stronger social
capital in the form of their children. This group primarily struggles with maintaining an
adequate indoor temperature and rarely mentions making sacrifices in other areas. Rather,
these interviewees express having learned to live within the boundaries of their financial
means and having found strength in careful management of their financial means.

Araştırmanın amacı çarpıklık değeri, örneklem büyüklüğü ve kategori sayılarının farklı koşulları altında normallik testleri (Anderson-Darling, Cramer-von Mises, Jarque-Bera, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Lilliefors, Pearson ki kare, Shapiro-Francia ve Shapiro-Wilk) ve normallik için kullanılan betimsel istatistiklerin (çarpıklık ve basıklık katsayısının standart değerleri, çarpıklık katsayısı/standart hata) doğru belirleme yüzdesini karşılaştırmaktır. Alanyazın incelendiğinde normallik için birçok yöntemi karşılaştıran kapsamlı bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır.

Negli anni Ottanta del Novecento è emersa in biomedicina la categoria diagnostica di Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), “deterioramento cognitivo lieve”, la quale identifica un potenziale stadio preclinico della malattia di Alzheimer. Il MCI è definito come uno stato di transizione tra i cambiamenti cognitivi del normale invecchiamento e la demenza, ma la biomedicina riconosce che può essere difficile distinguerlo da un
invecchiamento normale. Che cos’è normale? In questo articolo, l’Autrice esplora diverse visioni e percezioni della normalità cognitiva in età avanzata emerse, durante visite neurologiche, in un Centro disturbi della memoria (Perugia, Italia). La “normalità”, lungi dall’essere un parametro di riferimento certo per la valutazione del MCI, è oggetto di interpretazioni plurali e diversificate sia nell’esperienza dei pazienti, sia
all’interno della biomedicina.

In this paper, I will investigate the potential of what I term Merleau-Ponty's 'situated phenomenology' for an investigation of normality from within and from without. First, I will argue that the concept of situation in the Phenomenology of Perception demarcates Merleau-Ponty's turn from a mere epistemological to a concrete critical phenomenology. Second, I will apply Merleau-Ponty's concept of situation as being situated and as being in situation to an investigation of normality. In doing so, I endeavor to differentiate between lived and represented normality, a difference which in turn corresponds to an operative (immanent) and established (external) normativity. A situated account of normality thereby combines a phenomenological and a genealogical perspective. My aim is to provide a toolkit to investigate the intertwinement of represented and lived normality, that is, of being situated and being in situation.

The notions of perceptual normativity and optimality have generated much discussion in the last decade or so in the Merleau-Ponty scholarship, thanks notably to the influential interpretation of Sean Kelly (2005 and 2010). However, the philosophical community is less familiar with Husserl's position on the topic, and for good reasons. Apart from a few cursory remarks in Thing and Space (cf. Doyon 2015; Drummond 1983), Ideas II (cf. Crowell 2013), Active and Passive Synthesis (cf. Steinbock 1995), Experience and Judgement (cf. Wehrle 2010) and the still not translated Lebenswelt volume (cf. Taipale 2014), there is not much to be found on this specific issue in Husserl's published works. Surprisingly, however, Husserl wrote extensively on the question of perceptual optimality. There are, indeed, not only a considerable amount of important passages scattered throughout the manuscripts (especially the DManuscripts), but the archive also contains a few important texts (full texts) on precisely this issue. The aim of this paper is to provide a systematic account of Husserl's conception of "perceptual optima" in visual experience.

We propose a new robust estimator of the regression function in a nonparametric regression model. Empirical evidence suggests that the proposed estimator performs better (in an averaged squared error sense) than the popular local least squares estimator for non normal error distributions. The proposed estimator has the same asymptotic properties as all classical estimators.

L’assistència sexual és un treball sexual que proporciona a la persona amb diversitat
funcional un suport per a accedir sexualment al propi cos o al cos d’una altra
persona amb diversitat funcional, però no al cos de l’assistent sexual. Seguint el
model de vida independent, el coneixement, la responsabilitat i el control de la
situació el té la usuària. L’assistència sexual constitueix un dret de les persones amb
diversitat funcional al propi cos que ha de generar obligacions concretes als poders
públics, sobretot de finançament per a que hi pugui accedir tothom que ho necessita.
A l’Estat espanyol és alegal i, per tant, no hi ha un col·lectiu professional que vetlli
per una formació, una praxi i una deontologia específiques. «Tus manos, mis
manos» és l’única associació d’assistència sexual de l’Estat espanyol. A Europa
només és comparable al model de Dinamarca, la resta són altres treballs sexuals
com l’acompanyament íntim i eròtic, la prostitució inclusiva, el massatge eròtic o el
surrogate. La història de l’assistència sexual a l’Estat espanyol està marcada per
l’aliança queer-crip entre moviments de persones amb diversitat sexual i de gènere i
de persones amb diversitat funcional, que comparteixen el cos com espai de lluita
política contra l’opressió heterosexista i capacitista del sistema patriarcal capitalista.
Aquesta investigació parteix d’entrevistes a una assistent sexual queer, a un usuari
d’assistència sexual, a un activista i a un psicòleg.

This article re-reads John 20:1–29 to foreground the normal, the post-normal and the new normal realities within the Johannine resurrection narrative. The narrator of John demonstrates the normal situational aspects by taking into consideration the setting, characterisation, thematic development, point of view and plot development of the story in closer relationship with the temporal and spatial mechanisms. The ordinary, local and existent realities are expressed to reveal the colourless human experiences in relation to the divine aspects within the narrative framework. The resurrection of Jesus introduces a post-normal situation within the Sitz im Leben Jesu and the Sitz im Leben Kirche. The post-normal situation was introduced by placing the story of Lazarus at a strategic place (Jn 11:1–45) and thereafter by unfolding the essentials such as speed, scope, scale and spontaneity. The unfolding of the divine within the existential human realities created a post-normal situation where the Johannine community had to undergo expulsion and persecution from the side of the dominant structures. The narrator gives the reader a hope about a new normal situation above and beyond the existent struggles of the Johannine community.

The present MA thesis takes as its starting point a challenge posed by Theodor Adorno, who suggests that a critical-theoretical endeavour capable of breaking through the ideological veil of late capitalism should not only question the prevailing normality, but also expose that this conception of the normal and the healthy is at the very origin of the social sickness of our time. Indeed, how to understand the idea that health is constitutive of the socially pathological? How to reconstruct, today, this contradictory interrelation between health and social pathology? In the face of the emphasis that the contemporary debate in Critical Theory has given to the concept of social pathologies, and also in the absence of an effective theorization of the concept of social health, my thesis argues that, in order to address Adorno's challenge, the critique of social pathologies has to be realized at the same time as a critique of social health. Thus, my aim is to outline a possible research pathway in order to reconstruct, theorize and even problematize the contradictory interrelation that Adorno accuses between the socially healthy and the socially pathological. To this end, in the first chapter I elaborate a reconstruction of the concept of social pathologies as second-order ideological blockages that distort individuals' relationship with their own experiences of social suffering. In the second chapter, I examine the implications of a critique of social pathologies in terms of a critique of the privatization of suffering and sick normality, as well as of the contemporary tendency of social actors to develop individual adaptive responses to the structural conditions behind their experiences of suffering. In the third chapter, I tentatively outline a critique of social health from a historical reconstruction of the concepts of normality, health and normativity.

The relation between normality and pathology has intrigued philosophers for centuries, but it has been recently revived by a number of researchers who have articulated and defended various versions of the continuity thesis (or CT, namely the idea that normal and pathological states are not categorically different). Despite a growing interest in the notion of continuity, CT is far from being the received view within philosophy of psychiatry, with many researchers still seeing normal and pathological states as being different in kind. In this article, I show that the core ideas underlying CT were already present in a sophisticated form in Freud's work. Indeed, Freud defends two interrelated theses that allow us to see him as an early defender of continuity. On the one hand, he is committed to the idea that healthy and mentally disordered subjects exhibit deep similarities in terms of mental functioning. On the other hand, he defends the possibility of describing with sufficient precision and generality what goes awry in pathological cases. The article is structured as follows: I first appeal to Freud's work to show that his account of psychopathology supports continuity; I then focus on two theoretical aspects of Freud's proposal that should be taken as desiderata for any refined account of mental disorders; and finally, I illustrate how the approach works in practice by analyzing one of Freud's clinical cases.

Stories recounted by mentally ill narrators have long been considered prime examples of unreliable narration. Yet in the light of the “cognitive turn” in literary studies, recent theories on unreliable narrators extend beyond text-immanent models to include the reader’s perception of the narrator. In this respect, assumptions about normalcy are particularly relevant. It is my aim to analyse the obsessive-compulsive narrator Daniel in Steve Martin’s humorous novel The Pleasure of My Company (2003), who aims at reconstructing the definition of normalcy. I want to show how the motif of “acting vs. being,” which permeates the novel, serves as the narrator’s means to control the reader’s perception in an attempt to present himself as “normal,” i.e. “likeable.” Yet my analysis reveals that the characters’ and the reader’s normative notions about health eventually dominate, undermine the narrator’s strategy and drive the plot to a deus-ex-machina ending that fully reestablishes conventional normalcy.

In the West, a specific ideal for female genitalia has emerged: one of absence, a "clean slit," attained through the removal of pubic hair and, increasingly, through female genital cosmetic surgery known as FGCS.
In The Perfect Vagina: Cosmetic Surgery in the Twenty-First Century, (published by Indiana University Press, 2021) Lindy McDougall provides an ethnographic account of women who choose FGCS in Australia and the physicians who perform these procedures, both in Australia and globally, while also examining the environment in which surgeons and women come together. Physicians have a vested interest in establishing this surgery as valid medical intervention, despite majority medical opinion explicitly acknowledging that a wide range of genital variation is normal. McDougall offers a nuanced picture of why and how these procedures are performed and draws parallels between FGCS and anthropological discussions of female genital circumcision (cutting). Using the neologism biomagical, she argues that cosmetic surgery functions as both ritual and sacrifice due to its promise of transformation while simultaneously submitting the body to the risks and pain of surgery, thus exposing biomedicine as an increasingly cultural and commercial pursuit.
The Perfect Vagina highlights the complexities involved with FGCS, its role in Western beauty culture, and the creation and control of body image in countries where self-care is valorized and medicine is increasingly harnessed for enhancement as well as health.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to discuss how numerous tests that are available in statistical
literature to assess normality of a given set of observations perform in normal and near-normal
situations. Not all these tests are suitable for all situations but each test has an exclusive area of
application.
Design/methodology/approach – These tests are assessed for their power at varying degrees of
skewness, kurtosis and sample size on the basis of simulated experiments.
Findings – It is observed that almost all these tests are indifferent for smaller values of skewness and
kurtosis. Further, the power of accepting normality reduces with increasing sample size.
Originality/value – The article gives guidelines to researchers to apply normality assessing tests in
different situations.

Workers in the Northern Russian oil and gas industry often describe their lives as “extreme.” The adjective refers to working in a physically challenging environment – be it the harsh climate, the hard industrial work, or the long commute to and from work. It also reflects the psychological pressure of living together with colleagues in small closed camps, the lack of privacy, and the hardship of being away from family for long periods of time. Those who have already
spent decades on long-distance commuting (LDC), also called fly-in/fly-out work (FIFO), are now accustomed to this lifestyle; it has become their new “normal.”
In contrast, many new workers who have just started the arduous routine doubt whether this is a sustainable way to earn a livelihood and quit after a few years – or even a few shifts. Not everyone has the adventurous spirit and mental toughness to commute long-term.
This chapter explores how the working conditions in the petroleum industry and the living conditions in the camps in the Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic regions affect the mobility potential of construction and operation workers in the oil and gas sector. It seeks to identify what circumstances enable individuals to embrace a long-term, sustainable career in this difficult environment.

This paper reviews the presence of psychotic features in the nonclinical population. The results of a literature review suggest that delusional and hallucinatory experiences are more common in the general population than we may think, and that there could well be a symptomatic continuum between people who have and people who have not been diagnosed with indisputable psychotic disorders. In the nonclinical population, voices are mainly positive and nonthreatening. Conversely, in the psychiatric population, they tend to be frequent, intrusive, and distressing. We address the question of voices considered as various human experiences and describe the emergence of the nonclinical group of people who hear voices. We also review the pathophysiology of auditory hallucinations as an illustration of a neurophysiological anomaly, which is useful to understand psychosis or schizophrenia. The main obstacle in the category-specific thought is that it remains impossible to unmistakably demarcate ...

This article aims at illustrating how Schmitt has conceived
sovereignty, essentially as a ‘normalising power’, the function of
which consists primarily in securing and stabilising the existential normal dimension of the life of the community. The sovereign
lays down the conditions of ‘normality’ that could guarantee the
subsistence and efficacy of the socio-legal order. In expounding
this argument, this paper pursues a twofold purpose. First, in
contrast to the common view, I will argue that by moving to a
‘concrete order thinking’ the theoretical architecture of sovereign
power, as independent production of the normal and the
abnormal, re-emerges in the figure of the leader (Fürher). Second,
Schmitt’s theory of sovereign power allows for the consideration
of the uneasy relationship between sovereignty and normality.
Terms like norms, normality and normalisation tend to exclude
any relation to sovereign power. Schmitt’s thought offers an
alternative point of view to the accepted understanding of the
idea of norm and normality. In this regard, I will advance the
thesis that norms do not escape the sovereign moment of their
establishment; which is not an accessory element but a principle
at the very core of the normativity of the norm.

The issues of normality of people, generally dealt with in the context of 'P' sciences (psychology, psychiatry and psychotherapy), have been coupled with the issue of implementing social norms in education process dealt with in the context of pedagogy. A well-established view that the issue of normality is 'ontologically evident' and rests upon natural behavior is opposed to views of the culturally situated normal-abnormal dimension and those of abnormality as a social structure. It has been shown that the border between the domains of normal and abnormal is vague, that it rests upon the absence of criteria giving privilege to invisible social groups and that those criteria change in time and differ in different cultures. Education that is tending to the harmonization of normality founded on what is natural and common to most humans is opposed to the view of education that is nurturing multiperspectivism - emancipation of as much diversity of perspectives as possible...

Current evidence suggests that young children who recover from stuttering are essentially stutter-free. However, there is no evidence to indicate if their speech is perceptually indistinguishable from normally fluent peers or whether they retain perceptually unusual speech. One important example of recovery from stuttering is children who have recovered without receiving formal treatment. An investigation was conducted to determine if the speech of these children is perceptually different from the speech of children who have never stuttered. Speakers consisted of 10 preschool and early school-age children documented as recovered from stuttering without benefit of formal treatment. In a series of studies they were compared with 10 children who had never stuttered. Three groups of judges-sophisticated, unsophisticated, and experienced-were separately asked, using videotaped speech samples of the children, to decide which samples were from children who used to stutter. Results revealed...