Surplus Value

The new design approaches that prevail today suggest a certain shift in the way architecture is conceived, materialized and described: architecture is now “animate,” “animalistic,” “evolutionary.” The leading fallacy towards which these words are paving the way is that form can be self-formatted; that new machines, robots and threedimensional (3D) printers – which are now themselves regarded as animate – could substitute for human labor and create surplus value – contrary to what Karl Marx’s analysis on machines has claimed. This paper focuses on the elucidation of such fallacies: on their exposition, their challenging.
Key Words: animate architecture, machinic surplus value, Greg Lynn, Karl Marx
Konstantina Kalfa (2015) Where the Spell is Chanted (Fallacies of Contemporary Architectural Discourses), Architecture and Culture, 3:3, 315-325

2008年に作品社から出版した著作。翌年に再版になったので、そちらをアップした（再版では初版にあった誤字を修正）。剰余価値論は、マルクスの『資本論』体系の中で最も完成されたものだが、それでもなお不十分な点があり、その再構築を企図したもの。「マルクス剰余価値論の再構成」４部作の第１部をなす。研究の過程で、マルクスの標準労働日論が非常に重要であることに気づき、その理論的発展過程を追った章が本書の中で最も分厚い部分となった。この標準労働日研究のおかげで、『資本論』における階級闘争と社会的承認の契機の独自の意義をはじめて本当に理解することができた。この本は、その意味で、その後における私の『資本論』研究の新しい地平を切り開くものとなった。

Since the 1970s, autonomist feminists have critiqued Karl Marx for failing to appreciate the sphere of reproduction as a key driver of capitalism. They have shown how unpaid reproductive work contributes to the production of surplus-value-something orthodox Marxism has refused to reckon with. This is in part because of a fetishisation of categories such as productive and unproductive labour as the theoretical building blocks of Marxism. However, if we understand Marx's critique of political economy as a method for understanding capitalism in terms of process, we are forced to rethink our understanding of categories such as surplus-value. Within current debates around the production of value under capitalism, it is useful to make an explicit conceptual distinction between where surplus-value is produced and where it is extracted. In doing so, we are foregrounding the sphere of reproduction and the key role it plays in upholding capitalist social relations.

This contrast, then, can inform the struggle against capitalism in the following ways. Firstly, it advocates for social movement unionism that transcend boundaries of production and reproduction. Secondly, it provides theoretical justification for withdrawing and disrupting reproductive labour, supporting a decentred politics of resistance outside the factory. Finally, it speaks to the importance of building autonomous movements for the production of "the commons". This paper uses examples from recent struggles in South Africa and South America to theoretically valorise the diversity of struggles that have emerged since the 1960s.

Notre projet vise à saisir la particularité de la problématique des  "Systèmes économiques dans l'histoire et la théorie" (livré édité par Polanyi, Arensberg et Pearson, sous le titre "Trade &n Markets in early empires", 1957) tout en tentant de saisir la logique de ce qui a recouvert trop longtemps l’originalité de cette perspective, dont on ne répétera jamais assez qu’elle est le prolongement nécessaire de la Grande Transformation. Contre les préconceptions typiques des différents avatars de l’idéologie économique, nous voulons souligner le potentiel critique - toujours intact selon nous -  que contient le substantivisme. La présente introduction contient ainsi trois parties distinctes. En premier lieu, nous tentons de mettre à jour les différents obstacles épistémiques constitués par l’idéologie économique et ses formes changeantes . En second lieu, nous réfléchirons à la signification de la démarche comparative qui est l’axe central du travail de SEHT. Car, par delà les débats et polémiques que doit susciter un texte des années 1950, fût-ce un texte majeur de la sociologie économique, c’est cette méthodologie spécifique qui est le legs durable de Karl Polanyi aux sciences sociales. Enfin, nous ferons un état des lieux, forcément très partiel, de quelques problèmes posés par l’ouvrage.

This paper asks Is the Global Shift of Production ‘Beyond Capital’?  It considers contemporary Marxist approaches and evaluates them as mostly northcentric.  Capital 1 is considered as three movements structured around surplus value in its becoming, modes of existence and accumulation as capital, punctuated by two turning points. Marx's comments at the second turning point, the conversion of surplus value into capital, reveal potentially other categories of surplus value beyond absolute and relative surplus value, based on distinct methods of obtaining extra surplus value based on the super-exploitation of labour and nature. The paper conclude that this extension of Marx is necessary to theorise the new totality of capitalism as globalised imperialism.

2012 ‘Structure and Essence in Capital and the Stages of Capitalism’ in Journal of Australian Political Economy No 70 December 2012; 251-270

RM Editorial Board, Reflecting on the Soviet Union on the 30th anniversary of its dissolution

Iosif G. Abramson, Systematization of the reasons for the failure of most socialist projects 

Savas Michael-Matsas, USSR and imperialism: Back to the future

Sungur Savran, The USSR, a Nationless Federation of Nations: The Most Adequate Form for the Transition to Socialism

Armağan Tulunay & Sungur Savran, The role of revolutionary Marxism in the collapse of the Soviet Union: Never again! 

Burak Gürel, The road to capitalist restoration in the People’s Republic of China Part 2: Mao Zedong’s suppression of the anti-bureaucratic movement, the Sino-American alliance, and Deng Xiaoping’s rise to power

Sungur Savran, The meaning of the storming of the Capitol

E. Ahmet Tonak, Does the digital sector produce surplus value? The case of Facebook

Ertuğrul Oruç, Humanity faces the COVID-19 pandemic

Nima Sabouri, From the strikes of contract-workers in the oil and gas industry of Iran to the global struggles of the working class

Savas Michael-Matsas, Engels, “Dialectics of Nature”, and the COVID-19 pandemic

Volkan Sakarya, In defense of Engels’s revolutionary Marxism: An anti-critique

Özgür Öztürk, Rethinking, rediscovering, and reconstructing Lenin

Savas Michael-Matsas, Rosa Luxemburg and the Permanent Revolution

Sungur Savran, Rosa Luxemburg and the Russian Revolution

What happens to a culture in which the death drive has been totally repressed and turned into a narcissistic desire to consume? Alexander Bove’s response to A. Kiarina Kordela’s first book, $urplus: Spinoza, Lacan (2007), puts ethics, psychoanalysis, Marxism, and biopolitics in conversation with each other. Drawing out a gap in Kordela’s logic, Bove concludes that the insertion Levinas’s concept of the face allows us to conceptualize the role of the death drive in ethics in late capitalism. (Jen Hedler Phillis)

Marx’s analysis in Capital moved dialectically through distinct yet mediated levels of abstraction.  Furthermore, his analysis covers a numbers of periods based on evolutions in the labour process within capitalism and its genesis. There is no reason to reject this in moving forward from developed capitalism to imperialist capitalism.  It is therefore wrong methodologically to see Marx’s analysis in Capital as abstract which it is the job of Marxists to apply correctly to today’s conditions.

Imperialism has had such a profound effect on social class relations that it modifies some of the most basic categories of capitalism as explicated in Capital (from Vol 3 to Vol 1). The super-exploitation of labour, driving wages below the value of labour-power, is not adequatly explained by absolute surplus-value and relative surplus-value. A third category of surplus value is required. 

2009 Presentation to Historical Materialism conference, London

The essay argues that a Marxist materialist analysis is fundamental in understanding and articulating the current international social/economic conjuncture. We sketch the theoretical framework underlying such an analysis, apply this framework broadly to describing the key phenomena defining our era, and draw some general strategic conclusions on what political approach and tasks revolutionary Marxists should be currently focusing on.

What is business getting itself into in its embrace of so-called artificial intelligence? What is it getting the world into?

In approaching these questions, it may be useful to set aside the term "artificial intelligence" in favour of "interpretation machines."

To do so is to point to ecological and political continuities between 19th-century and 21st-century automation -- continuities that may help clarify strategies for popular struggle.

МАРКСИСТКАТА ТЕОРИЯ И ПРОИЗВОДСТВОТО НА НЕЗНАНИЕ
    В тази книга ще бъдат разгледани някои елементи в развитието на
производствените  отношения  и  преди  всичко  извличането  на
принадена  стойност    посредством  концептуалната  схема  на  Роза
Люксембург.  За  целта  първата  глава  ще  бъде  посветена  на
реабилитиране на теорията за принадената стойност.

Theories that attempt to explain surplus in the context of storage in emergent complex societies are critically examined. This study uses data from the Middle Mumun Period of the Korean peninsula, c. 850–550 BC. Archaeologists often make overly simplistic associations between surplus, storage, and elites. Particularly problematic are the assumptions that excess grains were necessa- rily produced regularly, and that elites had direct influence in the allocation of surplus. Direct evidence for the assumption that centralized storage and sur- plus existed and was the prerogative of elite actors is lacking with the excep- tion of central-place settlements in the Mumun, even when one considers the production of a normal surplus. However, correlates of emergent complex society are found at a number of sites. I find that, while some evidence that elite actors appropriated surplus is found in two large settlements, in the majority of cases agriculturalists were producing ‘normal’ surpluses in support of their own subsistence.

Ce travail de recherche se donne comme objectif de démontrer que l’économie de la connaissance et son corollaire la financiarisation ne sont pas des modalités d’un nou-veau capitalisme qui se serait finalement autonomisé de la contrainte de l’accumulation du profit médiatisée par le travail abstrait. Il se présente comme une réponse théorique, qui pourrait permettre d’ouvrir des pistes de recherche confirmant ou infirmant cette hypothèse sur le plan empirique. Il s’agit de voir ce que la théorie de la valeur-travail peut apporter dans les débats autour de l’économie de la connais-sance et de la financiarisation. Notre hypothèse consiste à défendre l’idée que la théo-rie de la valeur-travail, telle que formulée par Marx, nous permettra de saisir un certain nombre de confusions régnant dans les débats autour du capitalisme contemporain, entre autres,  d’infirmer la thèse de la fin du travail, ainsi que d’apporter une réponse aux mystifications qui prêtent au capital la faculté de produire de la valeur. Notre re-cherche révèle que l’un des principaux problèmes relatif à la compréhension du capita-lisme contemporain consiste à confondre richesse et valeur, plongeant ainsi de nom-breuses théories dans des contradictions. De plus, le recours aux théoriciens du cou-rant de la Wertkritik nous permet de comprendre pourquoi le capital semble poursuivre son accroissement tandis que l’économie productive s’essouffle.

Resumen
En el artículo se reconstruye y se muestra el debate marxista sobre la naturaleza y fuente del plusvalor extra apropiado por los capitales que introducen una innovación tecnológica. Hasta el presente, esta controversia ha sido tratada siempre como subsidiaria de otros debates. Sin embargo, su recurrencia y la evolución de los argumentos esgrimidos —en particular en las últimas décadas— muestran que tiene la entidad de un debate en sí mismo. Tras rastrear la presencia de esta controversia en distintos debates marxistas en contextos históricos e intelectuales diversos, se reúnen y sistematizan los argumentos presentados. En esencia, se identifican dos posiciones contrapuestas: por un lado, la que argumenta que el plusvalor extra es la representación del trabajo de los trabajadores empleados por el capital innovador; por otro lado, la que argumenta que se trata de la representación del trabajo empleado por otros capitales. En la medida en que los argumentos se apoyan en diversas lecturas de la obra de Marx, se dedica una sección a reunir y discutir la evidencia textual disponible. Finalmente, se realiza un breve balance crítico del debate en el que se concluye que la posición que argumenta en favor de transferencias de valor no implica recaer en una concepción naturalizadora del valor ni es incompatible con los fundamentos de la crítica marxiana de la economía política.


Abstract
In this article the Marxist debate on the nature and source of the extra surplus value appropriated by capitals that introduce a technological innovation is reconstructed and presented. Until now, this controversy has always been treated as subsidiary to other debates. However, its reoccurrence and the evolution of the arguments – especially in the last decades – show that it has the makings for a debate in and of itself. After tracing the presence of this controversy in different Marxist debates in diverse historical and intellectual contexts, the arguments presented are collected and systematized. In essence, two opposing positions are identified: on the one hand, the one that argues that the extra surplus value is the representation of the work done by the workers employed by the innovation capital. On the other, the one that argues that it has to do with the representation of the work carried out by other capitals. As both arguments are supported in various readings of Marx’s work, a section is dedicated to gathering and discussing the textual evidence available. Finally, a brief critical balance is made of the debate which concludes that the position that argues in favor of transferences of value does not imply reverting to a naturalized concept of value nor is it compatible with the bases of Marx’s criticism of political economy.

Capitalism is a particular mode of production, dominant since the 18th Century, based around the private ownership of the means of production (MP) and its operation for exchange value, and the related need for people to sell their own labor power (LP) to make a living. Dialectics and class struggle From a Marxist dialectical perspective, society is personified by two fundamentally opposed classes (capitalist and proletariat). As an outcome of class struggle, society can be transformed through time, from one hegemonic mode of production to another (e.g., feudalism to capitalism, capitalism to communism) as the oppressed class (e.g., workers) seeks to overthrow and liberate itself from the oppressor (e.g., the capitalist class). Surplus value Surplus value is value created by the unpaid labor of wage workers, over and above the value of their LP (necessary labor time), and appropriated without compensation by the capitalist. For Marxists, the production and appropriation of surplus value is a fundamental aim of capitalism. Commodity fetishism The term used critically by Marxists to describe mainstream economists' failure to acknowledge, and attempts to mystify, the social relations (and exploitation) that underlie the production of commodities. Uneven development The tendency under capitalism for some places to develop very rapidly while other places experience decline. The Marxist theory contends that the two countervailing tendenciesdof growth and declinedare fundamentally related and intrinsic to capitalist forms of production. Spatial fix The stabilization of capitalist production through geographical extension and reconfiguration via particular organizational place-based forms and locational arrangements for the purpose of expanded capital accumulation.

Apoiando-me nas teorias de Karl Marx e de Moishe Postone, procurarei demonstrar neste capítulo que: i) No cerne da síntese macrossocial moderna encontra-se uma inversão fetichista entre concretude e abstração. Tanto a força de trabalho humana como a realidade sensível, material e natural são reduzidas ao estatuto de inputs que devem ser consumidos, digeridos e expelidos produtivamente para alimentar o processo incessante de valorização; ii) Esta subsunção do concreto na dinâmica da acumulação de capital (D – M – D’) tem implicações devastadoras para o meio ambiente. A compulsão associada ao padrão normativo do tempo de trabalho socialmente necessário e à extração da mais-valia relativa impõe a todas as empresas, através da concorrência, níveis sempre crescentes de produtividade, de output e, portanto, de consumo de matérias-primas com vista a obter incrementos cada vez menores na massa de lucro agregada. Assim, à medida que a acumulação de capital devém mais difícil, a crise económica agrava a crise ecológica. Em suma, o modo de (re)produção capitalista baseia-se numa forma social de riqueza abstrata – valor/mais-valia – que é inerentemente autotélica, incontida e, como tal, acarreta uma forma desgovernada de crescimento económico nefasta para a biosfera.

Palavras-chave: Valor de uso, (Mais-)valor, Ecologia, Marx, Postone.

Already at the end of the Linearbandkeramik some signs of social complexity are appearing, like small circular or larger enclosures, or richer graves. Such signs are growing in the Cerny culture, in the middle of the 5th century, particularly with defensive enclosures and first barrows (the so-called “structures de type Passy”). With the final disappearance of the Danubian “traditions” in the last half of the 5th century, the present French territory was divided between the Michelsberg culture in the north east, the “Neolithique Moyen Bourguignon” in the east, and various regional groups related to the Chasséen in the south and west. Nevertheless, those various cultural phenomena share some features in common, like big enclosures, complex ceremonial installations, hierarchies in the settlements, or élite’s graves. Or course, the most remarkable features are the megalithic monuments, limited to the Atlantic coast. Nevertheless, during the 4th millennium, a large part of those elements seems to disappear and are in many regions absent until the beginning of the Bronze Age. A first question should be the reason of this change, perhaps due to political reasons like forms of resistance to the power, in comparison with the situation in the Near East. But an other question could be the problem of the visibility of the power, perhaps more subtle than before.

As we are living in a capitalist world, many believe that all the world products derive from capitalism, as if capitalism is a god capable of providing everything man desires, and many might except that economic modernization will happen, coming from competition and this might lead you the questions; why does everyone still need to compete when we are all equal? In this essay, I will argue that a communist society can be economically advanced through technological advancements, effective production of technologies, and proper management of surplus values.

El presente trabajo se centra en explicar el Sistema de Indemnización por Años de Servicio con motivo del término del contrato de trabajo en Chile, explicando su naturaleza jurídica y económica, así como su historia. Se centra en un análisis de la doctrina chilena y revisión de las ideas que habría detrás de una institución como la señalada

Palabras Clave: Plusvalía; Indemnización por años de Servicio; Teoría del Valor; Despido laboral.
Keywords: Surplus-produce; compensation for years of services; Theory of Value; Layoff.

PLEASE SUPPORT THE JOURNAL. See published version:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02533952.2018.1481687
This essay considers discourses of waste that include humans among the objects of discard: surplus/disposable populations in the Marxian tradition, or what Zygmunt Bauman has called "human waste." Notions of "surplus people" have a long history in South Africa, and this essay traces a genealogy of their narrative and cultural forms. These forms can alternately mask and expose the "indispensable dispensab[ility]" of vulnerable communities treated as waste: devastated, depleted, discarded, disregarded. I situate the blockbuster film District 9 within a longer tradition of documenting the plight of people who recognise that they have been "thrown away," in texts by Solomon T. Plaatje, Cosmas Desmond, Nadine Gordimer, and others. Attending to questions of geographic and temporal scale, I read between the historical example of South African apartheid and "global apartheid" as shorthand for the stratifications effected by neoliberal globalisation. How do these formations attend to the ideological violence, racial specificity, and enforced invisibility of surplus? This exclusion from the polity works through acts of un-imagining: in moments of crisis when they are pushed to the brink, the poor may have no recourse to the ethical and political grounds upon which they might claim the right to survival.

Resumen
Se realiza un análisis del proceso de valorización en Chile, Japón, Países Bajos y eu, realizando estimaciones del capital constante y variable adelantado, la composición y rotación del capital, y la tasa de ganancia sobre capital adelantado. Además, se analiza especialmente el papel jugado por la rotación del capital en el proceso de valorización. La rotación del capital tiende a ser superior en los países centrales, en virtud del mayor desarrollo de la fuerza productiva. De este modo, en los Países Bajos, eu y Japón existe una mayor participación asalariada en el ingreso, representando, a su vez, los salarios ajustados por la rotación del capital, una proporción menor en relación al capital total adelantado y al ingreso, en comparación con países periféricos como Chile.
Palabras clave: tasa de ganancia, distribución del ingreso, rotación del capital, composición del capital, tasa de plusvalía.
Clasificación jel: O57, P16.
Abstract
This paper analyzes the valorization process in Chile, Japan, Netherlands and United States, making estimates for advanced constant and variable capital, turnover speed, capital composition and profit rate on total advanced capital. Furthermore, it analyzes the turnover speed role in the valorization process. In core countries, turnover speed of capital tends to be higher due to a larger development of productive forces. Thus, in Netherlands, United States and Japan there is higher wage participation on income, representing at the same time the wage bill adjusted by capital turnover, a lower proportion related to total capital and income, compared to peripheral countries like Chile.
Keywords: profit rate, income distribution, turnover speed, capital composition, surplus value rate.
jel classification: O57, P16.

El objetivo de este artículo es aclarar la crítica que el psicoanalista Jacques Lacan dirige al concepto marxista de plusvalía. Tras el concepto de una plusvalía contable Lacan quiere desvelar la necesidad de atender a la noción más fundamental de un plus-de-gozar [plus-de-jouir] incontable. Atenderemos para ello a diferentes pasajes de sus seminarios XVI, De un Otro al otro (1968-69), XVII, El reverso del psicoanálisis (1969-70) y de su texto Radiofonía (1970).

With the privatization of the internet in 1995, capital managed to contain the digital common, to classify it as private property, and to generalize and extend the digital common of the private internet to the world community as universal private property. Since that time, individual capitals with a share in the ownership of the digital common as universal private property have taken on the mantle of digital landowners. Pursuant to their becoming digital landowners, capitals like Facebook and internet service providers have drawn account holders onto the universal private property of today's global internet, casting them in the role of digital peasant tenant-cultivators. This tenantry has promoted conditions ripe for the establishment of a feudal mode of agrarian exploitation that expresses itself through the establishment of digital sharecropping, the taking of digital ground rent, and the extraction of tribute.

Notre contribution porte sur une approche sémiotique qui fait normalement défaut dans les études althussériennes et qui prend ses mouvements de « la théorie de l’homologie de la production linguistique et de la production matérielle », élaborée en Italie dans les années 1960-70 par le philosophe marxiste du langage Ferruccio Rossi-Landi.

Après l’évocation rapide de ses acquis, la considération du « langage comme travail » et de « l’idéologie comme projet social », nous rappellerons notre proposition d’étendre cette approche pour tenir compte d’une plus-value idéologique, en plus de la plus-value monétaire classiquement reconnue par la théorie marxiste. Par cette extension de l’homologie, nous montrerons aussi qu’on peut envisager le sexe comme travail. Cela nous permettra de rapprocher la question du travail domestique et reproductif de la femme du travail matériel et du travail linguistique à la fois, afin d’appréhender de manière unitaire, révolutionnaire et donc émancipatrice l’exploitation homologue qui a lieu sous le capitalisme dans les trois facteurs de la reproduction sociale : production matérielle, production linguistique, (re)production des êtres humains.

Reliant ainsi la soumission de la femme à une subsomption générale du travail de reproduction au travail de production, nous évoquerons par la suite certaines approches féministes de la plus-value et de l’exploitation, pour nous arrêter plus longuement sur le cas de l’ouvriériste italienne de Lutte féministe, Leopoldina Fortunati. Elle a proposé de considérer le travail domestique comme productif jusqu’au bout, à savoir au point de produire une plus-value monétaire. La discussion critique de ces théories d’un point de vue homologique permet de mieux saisir l’intuition marxienne de la valeur d’usage comme fiction sémiotique et d’achever notre réflexion sur le sens que la mesurabilité a dans le système capitaliste et peut prendre dans les formes de résistance à celui-ci pour bâtir une société à même de donner une valeur non-marchande à tout ce qui est inestimable.

El artículo reordena la discusión latinoamericana sobre grandes proyectos urbanos a partir del concepto de just city. Mientras parte de la literatura asocia los primeros con el neoliberalismo urbano, dada su orientación hacia la ganancia económica, otra discute cómo las articulaciones entre justicia y espacio apuntan en una dirección política y urbana contraria. A partir del análisis de fuentes secundarias y de abordajes previos sobre grandes proyectos, se postula que, lejos de tratarse de universos contradictorios, las concepciones sobre just city pueden reforzar posicionamientos críticos, pero también reformistas sobre los grandes proyectos urbanos. Esto ocurre en la medida en que se trata de conceptos amplios factibles de ser movilizados desde diversos posicionamientos ideológicos y políticos frente a grandes proyectos urbanos heterogéneos. El artículo postula la existencia de posicionamientos "críticos", "reformistas" y "entusiastas" a partir de asuntos como: criterios de evaluación promovidos, posicionamientos sobre la cuestión de la participación y posturas sobre el vínculo entre grandes proyectos y recuperación de plusvalías. El cruce entre grandes proyectos urbanos y just city propuesto a propósito de la experiencia latinoamericana permite profundizar el abordaje y evaluación de los primeros desde perspectivas renovadas, así como expandir conceptualmente el análisis de políticas urbanas más amplias.

In the summer of 2004, Greece hosted the XXVIII Olympic Games. The focal point of the Games was the Prefecture of Attica, where the city of Athens, the capital of the Hellenic Republic, is located.
Ever since September 5, 1997, the day Athens was selected to be the site of the Games, the Prefecture of Attica has been changing. Many public works projects were in progress and others had just been approved, virtually turning the greater Athens area into a work site. Olympic venues, infrastructure, and housing facilities changed the existing urban and land planning schemes of every local authority involved directly or indirectly in the Games, re-defined real estate values, and created a considerable (sometimes even enormous) net gain in values to land.
In the first part of this paper, the terms “value” and “net gain in value” are analyzed and corresponded to the Hellenic real estate market data, while an extensive description of the evolution of the net gain in values and the taxation status in Greece is attempted.
In the second part, the “Olympic Venues” are grouped geographically in order to study their influence on the local real estate market. Based on data collected over the past few years for residential properties, professional establishments, and land parcels (market values, building construction standards, urban planning regulations, etc.), the corresponding net gain in values has been calculated. The resulting influence is graphically presented through buffer zones using the ArcMap GIS software, and is accompanied by analysis of market trends.
Finally, the last, but not least, part contains an analysis of the future of the Hellenic real estate market and its institutional evolution, the demand for certain property categories and the financial adjustments to others, the levels of values and of the net gain in values through 2006, and a nationwide outlook with a view toward increasing real estate values.

The evidence on growing inequality in OECD countries has raised an important debate over its main drivers, pointing out an increasing importance of capital-labour conflict. In this contribution, we aim at disentangling the role of some of the forces shaping this process. Our identification strategy relies on the sequential nature of wage setting and profits realization, in line with theoretical insights from the range theory of wages (postulating rents sharing at the shop floor level) and the principle of effective demand. In particular we focus on the role of technology and offshoring as instruments to create surplus and to shape the bargaining power of the parties involved in wage setting, and on different sources of demand as heterogeneous determinants of profits realization. The empirical analysis is performed on a panel of 38 manufacturing and service sectors over four time periods from 1995 to 2010, covering Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and United Kingdom. The contrasting effects of R&D and offshoring emerge as determinants of wages. Investment and internal demands are key variables in the realization of profits. When we look at the heterogeneity of the effects we see three main stylized facts. First of all, distinguishing for technological domain using Pavitt classes we can see that rents are effectively related with upgraded industries. Secondly, when we distinguish for the degree of openness we can see that, again, rents are mainly shared in open industries. Finally, when we disentangle the effect on wages per skill level, it is possible to confirm the intuition that offshoring hits the medium-low skill categories.

PL
Proces produkcji artystycznej to termin sformułowany na potrzeby
określenia warunków umożliwiających powstanie produktu pracy
(dzieła, utworu, idei), które są utożsamiane ze sposobem pracy typowym
dla artystów. Te warunki to stopień ukończonej edukacji, poziom
rozwoju kariery, tryb pracy, ilość wolnego czasu i stopień sieciowania.
Autorka bada narracje o pracy prowadzone przez grupę pracownic
i pracowników rozmaitych branży: od pola kultury, przez uniwersytet
po branżę IT. Poza sektorem kultury proces produkcji artystycznej
zamienia się w przymus kreatywności – kreatywny pracownik jest hiperwydajny,
innowacyjny, przywiązany do miejsca pracy i zespołu, ma
poczucie misji, sukces projektu zapewnia mu możliwość pozostania
w branży, realizację kolejnych projektów, zwiększenie wynagrodzenia.
Zjawisko procesu produkcji artystycznej definiuję z pomocą powstałych
w ostatnich latach publikacji indywidualnych, antologii i raportów
badań, w których priorytet mają te pozycje, które wynikają z bezpośrednich
praktyk i doświadczeń producentów kultury. Celem pracy
jest denaturalizacja przekonania, że osoby pracujące w polu kultury
podlegają alternatywnej ekonomii usprawiedliwiającej niskie płace
w sektorze. Badania z użyciem wywiadu ustrukturyzowanego przynoszą
ciekawe wnioski o współczesnym, polskim rynku pracy.
Słowa kluczowe: PRACA, PRACOWNICY KULTURY, PREKARIAT, PROCES
PRODUKCJI ARTYSTYCZNEJ, WARTOŚĆ DODATKOWA


ENG
The term ‘artistic production process’ was initially coined to describe
the conditions leading to the creation of a product (art piece, writing,
idea) of artist’s labour, where the education and career development
level, working conditions, the amount of free time and level of networking
create the main conditions for the following mode of production.
The author analyses various narratives about work form the
perspective of employees – starting with the ones working within the
field of culture, through the university to the IT industry. Beyond the
realm of the cultural sector, the process of artistic production transforms into compulsion of creativity. The creative worker is hyperproductive, innovative, tied to the workplace and team, has a sense of mission, the success of his or her project provides with the opportunity to remain in the industry, pursue further projects, increase salary. The phenomenon of the artistic production process is defined by
individual publications, anthologies and research reports created in
recent years, in which priority is given to the works based on practices
and experiences of cultural producers. The aim of the thesis is a denaturalization of common belief that the field of culture is lead by an
alternative economy that justifies low wages in the sector. Research
with structured interviews brings interesting conclusions about the
contemporary Polish labor market.
Key words: WORK, CULTURAL WORKERS, PRECARITY, ARTISTIC PRODUCTION PROCESS, SURPLUS VALUE