See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/278795758

Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults

Article  in  The Psychiatric clinics of North America · June 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2015.05.004

CITATIONS READS

20 2,971

2 authors, including:

John Briere
University of Southern California
168 PUBLICATIONS   14,346 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Life Events Heath and Relationships View project

All content following this page was uploaded by John Briere on 20 February 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Complex Trauma in
A d o l e s c e n t s an d A d u l t s
Effects and Treatment

John Briere, PhD*, Catherine Scott, MD

KEYWORDS
 Complex trauma  Trauma  PTSD  Complex PTSD  Treatment of complex trauma

KEY POINTS
 Exposure to multiple interpersonal traumas over the life span can have significant later
psychological effects, both on the likelihood of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in
response to a given stressor and in terms of a wide range of other symptoms and
problems.
 Complex trauma can sometimes result in what has been referred to as complex PTSD,
developmental trauma disorder, or enduring personality change after catastrophic events,
often involving some combination of relational dysfunction, affect dysregulation, identity
disturbance, and dysfunctional behavior.
 There are several empirically validated psychological and pharmacologic treatments rele-
vant to complex trauma, most of which target individual symptom clusters.
 Psychological treatments for complex trauma effects tend to focus on processing trauma
memories and cognitions and developing affect regulation skills and coping responses.
 Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and related drugs can be helpful for the
posttraumatic stress that sometimes follows complex trauma exposure, there are less
data to suggest that the other, more personality-level difficulties associated with complex
trauma respond well to pharmacologic interventions.

Recent research indicates that the number and variety of interpersonal traumas an in-
dividual has experienced over his or her lifespan significantly predicts the extent and
composition of his or her subsequent psychological symptoms and disorders. At high
levels, this phenomenon is referred to as complex trauma, defined as exposure to

Neither Dr J. Briere nor Dr C. Scott has commercial or financial conflicts of interest to declare.
Preparation of this review was supported by grant No. 1U79SM061262-01 from the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
* Corresponding author. USC Psychiatry, Clinical Sciences Center, 2250 Alcazar Street, Suite
2200, Los Angeles, CA 90089.
E-mail address: jbriere@usc.edu

Psychiatr Clin N Am 38 (2015) 515–527

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2015.05.004 psych.theclinics.com
0193-953X/15/$ – see front matter Ó 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
516 Briere & Scott

multiple, often prolonged or extended traumas over time, potentially including events
such as rape, physical assault, sex trafficking, torture, and combat and frequently in
the context of previous childhood abuse and/or neglect.1,2 As described in this article,
complex trauma exposure not only increases the likelihood of posttraumatic stress in
response to a given event but it also can result in several simultaneously presenting
but phenomenologically discrete psychological difficulties, described in the empirical
literature as symptom complexity.3–5
Research on the effects of complex trauma has had significant impacts on empirical
and clinical models of posttraumatic distress and disorder. Most importantly, it rein-
forces the notion of multidimensional symptoms arising from multiple traumatic events
and challenges traditional assumptions regarding the single-event cause of posttrau-
matic stress disorder (PTSD).

RISK OF POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER

PTSD, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth
Edition) (DSM-5), consists of 4 clusters or symptom dimensions: re-experiencing of
the traumatic event; avoidance of trauma-relevant stimuli; numbing, negative cog-
nitions, and mood; and hyperarousal and hyperreactivity.6 Historically, DSM-III
through DSM-IV linked all the symptoms of PTSD to a single traumatic event,
such as an instance of sexual or physical assault or a natural disaster. As a result,
by definition, PTSD could not be diagnosed if some of its symptoms, for example,
flashbacks or numbing, arose from one trauma and others, for example,
hyperarousal or effortful avoidance, were related to one or more other traumatic
events.
Despite this narrow trauma requirement, a study of more than 2000 nonclinical in-
dividuals indicated that previous exposure to multiple traumatic events was associ-
ated with a greater risk of PTSD in response to a current (index) trauma and that
multiple previous traumas had a stronger effect than did a single event.7 Similarly,
data from the World Health Organization’s World Mental Health Survey Initiative
(combined N 5 51,295) found that approximately 20% of people with PTSD, if
asked, attributed their disorder to the effects more than a single traumatic event.
This study also indicated a risk threshold of 4 traumatic events, at or greater than
which PTSD tended to involve greater functional impairment, more chronic symp-
toms, earlier onset, greater hyperarousal, and higher comorbidity with mood and
anxiety disorders.8 Other studies also have found that previous traumas increase
the likelihood of PTSD in response to a later trauma as well as indicate that multiple
trauma exposures are the norm in the general population rather than the
exception.9,10
These findings suggest that although an index traumatic event may be immediately
associated with the development of PTSD, this trauma may best be understood
in some cases as the tipping point for the cumulative impacts of prior, more complex
traumas. Apropos of this, DSM-5 criterion A for PTSD specifies traumatic
“event(s)”,6(pp271, 272) in contrast to previous DSM’s requirement of a single traumatic
event. This DSM transition from a single-trauma to a potentially multi-trauma criterion
highlights the notion that PTSD can arise from complex trauma, perhaps especially
when it is accompanied by other symptoms and difficulties.9

RISK OF COMPLEX OUTCOMES

Because complex trauma typically involves exposure to multiple types of events, it

is logical to assume that their combined effects might also be complex. For
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 517

example, sexual assaults are often associated with different outcomes than
physical assaults; the effects of disaster can differ from those of interpersonal
trauma; and childhood maltreatment often has different impacts than adolescent
or adult victimization,11 such that an accumulation of different traumas generally
leads to a wider range of symptom types. Further, trauma is, itself, a risk
factor for revictimization at later points in time12 and, thus, even more complex
outcomes.
Other variables further complicate this clinical picture. Multiple trauma exposures
are frequently associated with reduced affect regulation capacity,13 premorbid or
comorbid anxiety, depressive or personality-level disorders,8,14 impulsivity,15 disso-
ciation,16 drugs or alcohol abuse,17 and a history of insecure parent-child attach-
ment.2 These phenomena not only represent complex posttraumatic outcomes,
they can intensify or mediate the effects of trauma exposure.7,16 Finally, posttrau-
matic symptoms may motivate subsequent maladaptive coping responses, such
as suicidality related to sustained posttraumatic stress18 and avoidance activities,
such as dissociation and substance abuse in response to trauma-related
dysphoria.17,19
Given these findings, it is not surprising that a history of complex trauma expo-
sures is associated with multiple symptoms or symptom clusters experienced
simultaneously by the same individual. Although the literature describes an exten-
sive list of these outcomes,1–3,20–23 clinical researchers have repeatedly identified
a more specific group of psychological symptoms and problems, generally involving
self-related difficulties,1 such as affect dysregulation, relational disturbance
(including abandonment concerns and interpersonal sensitivity), identity problems,
cognitive distortions, somatization, and avoidance responses such as dissociation,
substance abuse, and self-injurious behavior.1,20,22,23 Despite the overlap of many
of these symptoms and problems with diagnostic features of borderline personality
disorder,24 their relationship to multiple childhood and adult traumas, and the
frequent copresence of posttraumatic stress symptoms, have led them to be char-
acterized as complex PTSD,22 disorders of extreme stress not otherwise specified,23
developmental trauma disorder,25 self-capacity disturbance,11 and enduring person-
ality change after catastrophic events (EPCACE).26 Most recently, the proposed In-
ternational Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision, is slated to replace EPCACE
with a diagnosis of complex PTSD. There is controversy, however, regarding
whether such disturbance reflects a specific syndrome, as opposed to dimensions
of symptoms that vary according to characteristics and developmental timing of the
traumas involved.1,23

TREATMENT OF COMPLEX TRAUMA-RELATED DISTURBANCE

Because complex posttraumatic outcomes are, by definition, wide ranging, there

are several psychological and psychopharmacological interventions relevant to their
treatment. In both psychological and biological domains, these can be divided into
single- and multi-target treatments. Most single-target interventions address one
aspect of complex trauma outcomes, although they may have additional effects.
For example, exposure therapy is targeted at symptoms of PTSD but also impacts
trauma-related cognitive distortions27; the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) have effects not only on PTSD but also on depression and anxiety.28
Multi-target interventions, on the other hand, often consist of several different com-
ponents and have been developed explicitly to address a wider range of trauma
symptoms.
518 Briere & Scott

Psychological Interventions
Treatments for complex posttraumatic outcomes generally consist of (1) cognitive-
behavioral therapy (CBT), (2) affect regulation and coping skills training, (3) rela-
tional/psychodynamic approaches, and (4) multi-target intervention models. These
methodologies are briefly presented later, primarily for clinically referred older adoles-
cents and adults.

Cognitive-behavioral
CBT is described in the trauma literature as the most commonly applied empirically
based treatment of PTSD and, to a lesser extent, acute stress disorder (ASD).29,30
The most efficacious aspects of CBT for trauma symptoms seem to be therapeutic
exposure, involving the activation and habituation and/or extinction of trauma-
related memories within the context of a safe therapeutic environment,27 and cogni-
tive processing, during which negative thoughts and schemas, such as self-blame,
helplessness, and overgeneralized danger appraisals, are explored, challenged, and
ideally replaced with more accurate information.31 Also potentially included in this
domain is eye movement desensitization and reprocessing,32 during which the client
recalls a traumatic event, focuses on his or her internal responses, and then, typi-
cally, tracks the therapist’s finger as it moves across his or her visual field. Each
of these methodologies has been shown in outcome studies to reduce symptoms
associated with PTSD.29

Affect regulation training

A second form of psychological treatment attends less to the direct processing of
traumatic memories and cognitions and more to the development of affect toler-
ance and regulation as well as emotional coping skills. This distinction is often
important in the treatment of complex trauma effects because affect dysregulation
is associated with affective instability, difficulties in tolerating and processing poten-
tially overwhelming traumatic memories, and the use of maladaptive coping strate-
gies, such as substance abuse, excessive dissociation, self-injury, dysfunctional
sexual behavior, and binge-purge eating.33 Empirically based interventions in this
area teach several skills, including emotion identification, increased self-
awareness, relaxation, mindfulness, de-escalation of catastrophic cognitions, and
the development of coping strategies to deal with triggered trauma-related thoughts
and feelings.34–39

Psychodynamic
A third class of interventions in complex trauma effects includes those calling on psy-
chodynamic and relational principles and therapies. Although less studied in the
empirical literature, a limited number of studies suggest that relational/dynamic treat-
ments can be helpful in the treatment of the self-related aspects of complex trauma,
including interpersonal dysfunction, attachment-related problems, and identity distur-
bance.30,40 It is likely that, among other components, these treatments call on the
most powerful common factors identified in psychotherapy outcome research: a pos-
itive therapeutic relationship, empathy, warmth, attunement, and positive regard.41

Multi-target therapies
Although the 3 approaches described here have demonstrated efficacy for trauma-
related symptoms and problems, the breadth and range of complex posttraumatic
symptoms often require more than one interventional modality. For example, although
CBT might be helpful resolving a client’s trauma-related flashbacks and hyperarousal,
he or she might additionally require affect regulation interventions to address his or her
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 519

impulsive or self-injurious behavior, both of which might be most helpful in the context
of a caring and attuned therapeutic relationship.
For this reason, there are currently several empirically based, multi-target interven-
tions available for the treatment of complex trauma effects. Among these are dialec-
tical behavior therapy (DBT)38 and skill training in affect regulation (STAIR),36 along
with several programs developed specifically for adolescents, including Attachment,
Self-Regulation, and Competency37; Integrative Treatment of Complex Trauma for
Adolescents35; and Structured Psychotherapy for Adolescents Responding to
Chronic Stress.42 Two of the best known of these approaches for adults, DBT and
STAIR, have especially encouraging treatment outcome data for the treatment of com-
plex trauma symptoms,38,43 although DBT originally identified borderline personality
disorder (BPD) as its focus. Almost all these hybrid interventions stress some combi-
nation of the following:
 A positive therapeutic relationship, characterized by caring, attunement,
compassion, and boundary awareness
 When appropriate, affect regulation training before major emotional processing
of trauma is initiated
 Titrated therapeutic exposure, in which the client is only asked to recall and pro-
cess traumatic memories that do not exceed his or her affect regulation capacity
and, thus, do not overwhelm or retraumatize
 Cognitive and relational processing of negative attachment and relational
schema
 Strategies for the management of posttraumatic triggers and activated emotional
states
Pharmacotherapeutic Interventions
There is a dearth of literature on the pharmacotherapy of complex posttraumatic
stress. The multidimensional nature of complex trauma presentations makes outcome
research into this area particularly challenging: comorbidities, such as medical prob-
lems, ongoing domestic violence and other maltreatment, substance use, suicidal
ideation, and dissociation, are typically excluded from treatment outcome studies.44
MEDLINE searches for pharmacotherapy of complex trauma, disorders of extreme
stress not otherwise specified, self-capacities disturbance, and affect regulation/affect
tolerance yield virtually no results. Thus, treatment of complex trauma presentations
must be adapted from the literature on PTSD, borderline personality disorder, and
dissociation and most often involves targeting the various symptom clusters rather
than specific diagnostic categories.33
Pharmacotherapy of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
It must be noted that pharmacotherapy for PTSD is typically not curative and that gener-
ally the amount of symptom reduction obtained with psychotherapy is larger than that
associated with pharmacology.45,46 On the other hand, several medications have been
found to be useful in the treatment of PTSD and other potential complex trauma ef-
fects.33 Because there is less research available on the biological treatment of trauma
symptoms in adolescents, this review is limited to pharmacotherapy with adults.
Antidepressants
The SSRIs are generally considered first-line pharmacotherapy for PTSD.28 At this
time, the only medications approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the
treatment of PTSD are SSRIs: sertraline and paroxetine. Randomized placebo-
controlled trials (RCTs) of SSRIs including sertraline, paroxetine, and fluoxetine47–49
520 Briere & Scott

have demonstrated efficacy across all 3 DSM-IV PTSD symptom clusters (re-experi-
encing, hyperarousal, and avoidance) and are now widely prescribed for posttrau-
matic stress. As SSRIs are also the first-line treatment of other anxiety and
depressive disorders, SSRIs may be used to address this broader spectrum of comor-
bidity in complex trauma.
Other antidepressants also have been investigated, with mixed results. Venlafax-
ine50 and mirtazapine51 seem promising, whereas bupropion shows less potential ef-
ficacy.52 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants seem to be
similarly equivocal53,54; given their high number of side effects, as well as lethality in
overdose, these medications are not currently recommended for PTSD.

Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are generally contraindicated for traumatized individuals, except
when they are necessary for downregulation of severe acute anxiety or panic.55
Research with benzodiazepines has overwhelmingly indicated that they are specif-
ically unhelpful in ameliorating the symptoms of PTSD56 and may in fact increase
the risk for later PTSD.57,58 In complex trauma presentations, particular caution is war-
ranted when prescribing benzodiazepines, given their tolerance effects and addictive
potential.33

Mood stabilizers
Data on mood stabilizers in PTSD are sparse; most studies involve small sample sizes,
are not randomized, and results are equivocal. Researchers have investigated lamo-
trigine,59 divalproex sodium,60 carbamazepine,61 and tiagabine.62 Mood stabilizers
are not considered a primary treatment of PTSD.

Adrenergic agents
Both alpha- and beta-adrenergic blocking agents have been investigated in the treat-
ment of PTSD. Although some open trials indicate promise,63,64 data from larger
studies suggest that beta-blockers are not effective in either preventing PTSD or
ameliorating symptoms.65,66 However, several open trials of clonidine67,68 and RCTs
of prazosin69,70 indicate that alpha-blockade is useful for improving sleep and
reducing nightmares and trauma-related dream content in PTSD.

Antipsychotics
There has been much interest in antipsychotics for PTSD; despite the limited evidence
of effectiveness, they are used with some frequency in clinical practice. Of the second-
generation antipsychotics, risperidone and olanzapine have been evaluated in RCTs.
Initial studies of risperidone were promising71,72; however, in a recent 6-month multi-
center RCT with more than 300 subjects, risperidone was not associated with a reduc-
tion in symptoms of anxiety, depression, or PTSD.73 Similarly, although an initial RCT
of olanzapine as an adjunctive treatment indicated moderate response in symp-
toms,74 a second found no benefit over placebo.75 The single RCT of olanzapine
monotherapy76 did show a robust response in 70% of the treated individuals but
has not been replicated.
The aforementioned results are interpreted variously, with some reviewers suggest-
ing that antipsychotics show promise for the treatment of PTSD,77 whereas others
conclude that there is not a role for antipsychotics as a first-line treatment.28 Accord-
ing to the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) guidelines,55 antipsychotics
should be reserved for individuals with comorbid psychosis or overwhelming agitation
and aggression.
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 521

Pharmacotherapy of Dissociation
The literature on pharmacotherapy of dissociative symptoms is extremely sparse.
Symptoms such as derealization, depersonalization, and time loss are generally
considered to be nonresponsive to medications. Although this is largely correct, there
are some limited data on pharmacotherapy for dissociative symptoms. Several open
trials78 and one RCT79 have suggested that naltrexone may help to reduce dissocia-
tive symptoms and posttraumatic flashbacks in borderline patients. Others have
described its effectiveness in reducing self-injurious behavior in dissociative identity
disorder.80
Initial open trials suggested that SSRIs might be effective for treating dissociation81:
however, an RCT of fluoxetine did not support this practice.82 Similarly, although open
trials suggested the antiepileptic lamotrigine might be helpful for dissociative symp-
toms,83 an RCT84 did not indicate efficacy. In the lone study of an antipsychotic in
dissociation, aripiprazole was found to be helpful in 3 cases of depersonalization
disorder.85

Pharmacotherapy for Self-capacity Disturbance

There is virtually no literature on pharmacologic treatment of those complex posttrau-
matic outcomes characterized earlier as self-capacity disturbance. The only data
available in the larger literature involves the pharmacotherapy of BPD, which also in-
volves altered self-capacities. BPD is one of the most difficult psychiatric conditions to
treat, and almost every medication in the psychopharmacotherapy armamentarium
has been investigated.
Guidelines for the treatment of BPD vary: the APA recommends mood stabilizers
and antipsychotics to treat aggression and transient paranoid ideation,86 whereas
the National Institute for Clinical Excellence recommends that pharmacotherapy of
specific borderline symptoms, in the absence of comorbidities, be avoided.87 Two
extensive reviews of pharmacotherapy for BPD indicate, respectively, the following:
“Notably, no evidence was found for several borderline personality disorder symp-
toms – avoidance of abandonment, chronic feelings of emptiness, identity disturbance
and dissociation”88 and “In particular, no drugs were found efficacious to treat core
domains of BPD.”89
Despite the aforementioned information, there are a handful of RCTs indicating that
there might be a role for medications in the treatment of 2 domains relevant to complex
trauma: rejection sensitivity and interpersonal relatedness. The mood stabilizer dival-
proex sodium was found in 2 studies to be helpful for social functioning in BPD90 and
for interpersonal sensitivity,91 respectively. Similarly, the antiepileptic topiramate
decreased levels of both somatization and interpersonal sensitivity92 and the antipsy-
chotic olanzapine was superior to placebo in improving measures of interpersonal
sensitivity.93

SUMMARY

Exposure to complex trauma is both relatively common and potentially associated

with a range of psychological outcomes, including a decreased threshold for PTSD
and a cluster of symptoms especially characterized by identity disturbance, affect
dysregulation, relational difficulties, and dysfunctional behaviors. Empirical studies
indicate that both psychological and pharmacologic interventions can be helpful,
although psychotherapy seems to be markedly more effective for self-related
symptoms.
522 Briere & Scott

CLINICAL VIGNETTE: YOUNG WOMAN WITH COMPLEX POSTTRAUMATIC SYMPTOMS

M.K. is a 24-year-old single Caucasian woman brought to a university-based emergency depart-
ment (ED) by police following an overdose with twenty 0.5-mg tablets of lorazepam (Ativan).
ED records indicate 4 previous ED admissions for suicidal behavior, generally precipitated by
relational strife with romantic partners. She was hospitalized following 2 of these incidents
and in both cases was discharged after 72 hours. Discharge diagnoses were, variously, border-
line personality disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, mood disorder not otherwise specified,
and substance use disorder. On interview, M.K. reports a childhood history of sexual abuse by
her stepfather and oldest stepbrother, from 7 to 16 years of age, and psychological neglect com-
bined with an episode of physical abuse by her mother. She describes herself as always in
trouble from her early teens until the present, reporting chronic methamphetamine abuse,
truancy, running away from home, physical fights with other girls, and relatively indiscriminant
sexual behavior since 16 years of age, soon after being gang-raped by her ex-boyfriend and 2 of
his friends. Her last methamphetamine use was reportedly 1 week before her ED admission. On
mental status examination, she appeared alert and oriented but somewhat dissociated, with
depressed mood and constricted/numb affect. She reported a history of chronic self-cutting,
bulimia, hypervigilance around men, and flashbacks of the gang rape and an especially violent
sexual assault by her stepbrother.
M.K. was referred to a trauma-specialized female psychologist and a psychiatrist who started
her on sertraline hydrochloride (Zoloft), with limited supplies of medication because of her
recent history of suicide attempts. After a relatively rocky beginning, characterized by rejection
sensitivity and distrust of her therapist, she seems to be gaining from the affect regulation
training component of therapy, which has reduced her self-injurious and dysfunctional behav-
iors, and has experienced some lifting of her depression. After 3 months of therapy, however,
she is still unable to engage in significant therapeutic exposure or cognitive processing of
her trauma history.

REFERENCES

1. Briere J, Spinazzola J. Phenomenology and psychological assessment of com-

plex posttraumatic states. J Trauma Stress 2005;18:401–12.
2. Cook A, Spinazzola J, Ford J, et al. Complex trauma in children and adolescents.
Psychiatr Ann 2005;35:390–8.
3. Briere J, Kaltman S, Green BL. Accumulated childhood trauma and symptom
complexity. J Trauma Stress 2008;21:223–6.
4. Cloitre M, Stolbach BC, Herman JL, et al. A developmental approach to complex
PTSD. Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom
complexity. J Trauma Stress 2009;22:399–408.
5. Hodges M, Godbout N, Briere J, et al. Cumulative trauma and symptom
complexity in children: a path analysis. Child Abuse Negl 2013;37:891–8.
6. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders. 5th edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing;
2013.
7. Breslau N, Chilcoat HD, Kessler RC, et al. Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD
effects of subsequent trauma: results from the Detroit area survey of trauma. Am J
Psychiatry 1999;156:902–7.
8. Karam EG, Friedman MJ, Hill ED, et al. Cumulative traumas and risk thresholds:
12-month PTSD in the World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Depress Anxiety
2014;31:130–42.
9. Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, et al. National estimates of exposure to
traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria.
J Trauma Stress 2013;26:537–47.
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 523

10. Walsh K, Danielson CK, McCauley JL, et al. National prevalence of posttraumatic
stress disorder among sexually revictimized adolescent, college, and adult
household-residing women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012;69:935–42.
11. Briere J. Psychological assessment of adult posttraumatic states: phenomenol-
ogy, diagnosis, and measurement. 2nd edition. Washington, DC: American Psy-
chological Association; 2004.
12. Classen CC, Palesh OG, Aggarwal R. Sexual revictimization: a review of the
empirical literature. Trauma Violence Abuse 2005;6:103–29.
13. Ford JD. Treatment implications of altered affect regulation and information pro-
cessing following child maltreatment. Psychiatr Ann 2005;35:410–9.
14. Breslau N, Davis GC, Andreski P, et al. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress
disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:
216–22.
15. Nickerson A, Aderka IM, Bryant RA, et al. The relationship between childhood
exposure to trauma and intermittent explosive disorder. Psychiatry Res 2012;
197:128–34.
16. Briere J, Hodges M, Godbout N. Traumatic stress, affect dysregulation, and
dysfunctional avoidance: a structural equation model. J Trauma Stress 2010;
23:767–74.
17. Ouimette P, Brown PJ. Trauma and substance abuse: causes, consequences,
and treatment of comorbid disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association; 2003.
18. Briere J, Godbout N, Dias C. Trauma, hyperarousal, and suicidality: a path
analysis. J Trauma Dissociation 2015;16(2):153–69.
19. Briere J, Scott C, Weathers FW. Peritraumatic and persistent dissociation in the
presumed etiology of PTSD. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:2295–301.
20. Complex Trauma Taskforce. The ISTSS Expert Consensus treatment guidelines for
complex PTSD in adults. 2012. Available at: http://www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/
media/Documents/ISTSS-Expert-Concesnsus-Guidelines-for-Complex-PTSD-
Updated-060315.pdf. Accessed June 11, 2015.
21. Follette VM, Polusny MA, Bechtle AE, et al. Cumulative trauma: the impact of child
sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. J Trauma Stress 1996;9:
25–35.
22. Herman JL. Complex PTSD: a syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated
trauma. J Trauma Stress 1992;5:377–92.
23. van der Kolk BA, Roth S, Pelcovitz D, et al. Disorders of extreme stress: the empir-
ical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. J Trauma Stress 2005;18:
389–99.
24. Gunderson J. Borderline personality disorder. N Engl J Med 2011;364:2037–42.
25. van der Kolk BA. Developmental trauma disorder: towards a rational diagnosis for
chronically traumatized children. Psychiatr Ann 2005;35:401–8.
26. World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and
related health problems (10th revision). Geneva (Switzerland): World Health Or-
ganization; 1992.
27. Foa EB, Hembree EA, Rothbaum BO. Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD:
emotional processing of traumatic experiences: therapist guide. New York: Ox-
ford University Press; 2007.
28. Friedman MJ, Davidson JR, Stein DJ. Psychopharmacotherapy for adults. In:
Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, et al, editors. Effective treatments for PTSD:
practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
New York: Guilford; 2009. p. 245–68.
524 Briere & Scott

29. Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, et al, editors. Effective treatments for PTSD:
practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
2nd edition. New York: The Guilford Press; 2008.
30. Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, et al. Early psychological interventions to
treat acute traumatic stress symptoms. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2010;(3):CD007944.
31. Resick PA, Schnicke MK. Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: a treat-
ment manual. Newbury Park (CA): Sage; 1993.
32. Shapiro F. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: basic principles,
protocols, and procedures. New York: Guilford; 1995.
33. Briere J, Scott C. Principles of trauma therapy: a guide to symptoms, evaluation,
and treatment. DSM-5 update. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage; 2014.
34. Blaustein ME, Kinniburgh KM. Treating traumatic stress in children and adoles-
cents: how to foster resilience through attachment, self-regulation, and compe-
tency. New York: Guilford Publications; 2010.
35. Briere J, Lanktree CB. Treating complex trauma in adolescents and young adults.
Thousand Oaks (CA): Sage; 2011.
36. Cloitre M, Stovall-McClough KC, Nooner K, et al. Treatment for PTSD related to
childhood abuse: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2010;167:
915–24.
37. Ford JD, Russo E. A trauma-focused, present-centered, emotion self-regulation
approach to integrated treatment for PTSD and addiction. Am J Psychother
2006;60:335–55.
38. Linehan MM. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder.
New York: Guilford; 1993.
39. Lampe A, Mitmansgruber H, Gast U, et al. [Treatment outcome of psychody-
namic trauma therapy in an inpatient setting]. [Therapieevaluation der Psychody-
namisch Imaginativen Traumatherapie (PITT) im stationären Setting].
Neuropsychiatr 2008;22:189–97 [in German].
40. Schottenbauer MA, Glass CR, Arnkoff DB, et al. Contributions of psychodynamic
approaches to treatment of PTSD and trauma: a review of the empirical treatment
and psychopathology literature. Psychiatry 2008;71:13–34.
41. Lambert MJ, Barley DE. Research summary on the therapeutic relationship and
psychotherapy outcome. Psychother Theor Res Pract Train 2001;38:357–61.
42. Habib M, Labruna V, Newman J. Complex histories and complex presentations:
implementation of a manually-guided group treatment for traumatized adoles-
cents. J Fam Violence 2013;28:717–28.
43. Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM. Two-year randomized controlled trial
and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal
behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:
757–66.
44. Spinazzola J, Blaustein M, van der Kolk BA. Posttraumatic stress disorder treat-
ment outcome research: the study of unrepresentative samples? J Trauma Stress
2005;18(5):425–36.
45. Cahill SP, Rothbaum BO, Resick PA, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for adults.
In: Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, et al, editors. Effective treatments for PTSD:
practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
New York: Guilford; 2009. p. 139–222.
46. Cukor J, Difede J. Review: psychotherapy, somatic therapy and pharmaco-
therapy are all more effective than control for the treatment of PTSD. Evid Based
Ment Health 2014;17(1):7. Accessed January 21, 2015.
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 525

47. Davidson JRT, Rothbaum BO, van der Kolk BA, et al. Multi-center, double-blind
comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress dis-
order. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:485–92.
48. Stein DJ, Davidson J, Seedat S, et al. Paroxetine in the treatment of post-
traumatic stress disorder: pooled analysis of placebo-controlled studies. Expert
Opin Pharmacother 2003;4:1829–38.
49. Martenyi F, Soldatenkova V. Fluoxetine in the acute treatment and relapse preven-
tion of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: analysis of the veteran
group of a placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Eur Neuropsychophar-
macol 2006;16:340–9.
50. Pae CU, Lim HK, Ajwani N, et al. Extended-release formulation of venlafaxine in
the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Rev Neurother 2007;7(6):
603–15.
51. Davidson JRT, Weisler RH, Butterfield MI, et al. Mirtazapine vs placebo in post-
traumatic stress disorder: a pilot trial. Biol Psychiatry 2003;53:188–91.
52. Becker ME, Hertzberg MA, Moore SD, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of bupro-
pion SR in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psycho-
pharmacol 2007;27:193–7.
53. Frank JB, Kosten TR, Giller EL, et al. A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and
imipramine for posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:
1289–2291.
54. Reist C, Kauffmann CD, Haier RJ, et al. A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men
with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:513–6.
55. American Psychiatric Association (APA). Practice guideline for the treatment of
patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry On-
line. 2004. Available at: http://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_
guidelines/guidelines/acutestressdisorderptsd.pdf. Accessed June 11, 2015.
56. Braun P, Greenberg D, Dasberg H, et al. Core symptoms of posttraumatic stress
disorder unimproved by alprazolam treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:236–8.
57. Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T, et al. Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzo-
diazepines: a prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:390–4.
58. Girard TD, Shintani AK, Jackson JC, et al. Risk factors for post-traumatic stress
disorder symptoms following critical illness requiring mechanical ventilation: a
prospective cohort study. Crit Care 2007;11:28.
59. Hertzberg MA, Butterfield MI, Feldman ME, et al. A preliminary study of lamotri-
gine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:
1226–9.
60. Hamner MB, Faldowski RA, Robert S, et al. A preliminary controlled trial of dival-
proex in posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2009;21:89–94.
61. Keck P, McElroy S, Friedman L. Valproate and carbamazepine in the treatment of
panic and posttraumatic stress disorders, withdrawal states, and behavioral dys-
control syndromes. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992;12:368–418.
62. Connor KM, Davidson JR, Weisler RH, et al. Tiagabine for posttraumatic stress
disorder: effects of open-label and double-blind discontinuation treatment. Psy-
chopharmacology (Berl) 2006;184:21–5.
63. Jiménez JP, Romero CC, Diéguez NG, et al. Pharmacological treatment of acute
stress disorder with propranolol and hypnotics. Actas Esp Psyquiatr 2007;35(6):
351–8.
64. Vaiva G, Ducrocq F, Jezequel K, et al. Immediate treatment with propranolol de-
creases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biol Psychiatry
2003;52:947–9.
526 Briere & Scott

65. Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM. Pilot study of secondary prevention of
posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biol Psychiatry 2002;51:189–92.
66. Stein MB, Kerridge C, Dimsdale JE, et al. Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: re-
sults from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured pa-
tients. J Trauma Stress 2007;20(6):923–32.
67. Kolb LC, Burris BC, Griffiths S. Propranolol and clonidine in the treatment of the
chronic post-traumatic stress disorders of war. In: van der Kolk BA, editor. Post-
traumatic stress disorder: psychological and biological sequelae. Washington,
DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1984. p. 98–108.
68. Kinzie JD, Leung P. Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress
disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1989;177:546–50.
69. Taylor FB, Martin P, Thompson C, et al. Prazosin effects on objective sleep mea-
sures and clinical symptoms in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder: a
placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:629–32.
70. Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Kanter ED, et al. Reduction of nightmares and other
PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study.
Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:371–3.
71. Monnelly EP, Ciraulo DA. Risperidone effects on irritable aggression in posttrau-
matic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999;19:377–8.
72. Rothbaum BO, Killeen TK, Davidson JR, et al. Placebo-controlled trial of risperi-
done augmentation for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-resistant civilian
posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:520–5.
73. Krystal JH, Rosenheck RA, Cramer JA. Adjunctive risperidone treatment for
antidepressant-resistant symptoms of chronic military service-related PTSD: a
randomized trial. JAMA 2011;306:493–502.
74. Stein MB, Kline NA, Matloff JL. Adjunctive olanzapine for SSRI-resistant combat-
related PTSD: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2002;
159:1777–9.
75. Butterfield MI, Becker ME, Connor KM, et al. Olanzapine in the treatment of post-
traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2001;16:
197–203.
76. Carey P, Suliman S, Ganesan K, et al. Olanzapine monotherapy in posttraumatic
stress disorder: efficacy in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
study. Hum Psychopharmacol 2012;27(4):386–91.
77. Wang HR, Woo YS, Bahk WM. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of post-
traumatic stress disorder. Clin Neuropharmacol 2013;36(6):216–22.
78. Bohus MJ, Landwehrmeyer GB, Stiglmayr CE, et al. Naltrexone in the treatment of
dissociative symptoms in patients with borderline personality disorder: an open-
label trial. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:598–603.
79. Schmahl C, Kleindienst N, Limberger M, et al. Evaluation of naltrexone for disso-
ciative symptoms in borderline personality disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol
2012;27(1):61–8.
80. Simeon D, Knutelska M. An open trial of naltrexone in the treatment of deperson-
alization disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2005;25(3):267–70.
81. Preve M, Mula M, Cassano G, et al. Venlafaxine in somatopsychic and autopsy-
chic depersonalization. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011;35(8):
1808–9.
82. Simeon D, Guralnik O, Schmeidler J, et al. Fluoxetine therapy in depersonalisa-
tion disorder: randomised controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 2004;185:31–6.
83. Sierra M, Phillips ML, Lambert MV, et al. Lamotrigine in the treatment of deperson-
alization disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62(10):826–7.
 Complex Trauma in Adolescents and Adults 527

84. Sierra M, Phillips ML, Ivin G, et al. A placebo-controlled, cross-over trial of lamo-
trigine in depersonalization disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2003;17(1):103–5.
85. Uguz F, Sahingoz M. Aripiprazole in depersonalization disorder comorbid with
major depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder: 3 cases. Clin Neurophar-
macol 2014;37(4):125–7.
86. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients
with borderline personality disorder. Washington, DC: Author; 2001.
87. National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE). Borderline personality disorder:
treatment and management. 2009. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/
cg78/resources/guidance-borderline-personality-disorder-pdf. Accessed January
21, 2015.
88. Lieb K, Völlm B, Rücker G, et al. Pharmacotherapy for borderline personality dis-
order: Cochrane systematic review of randomised trials. Br J Psychiatry 2010;
196(1):4–12.
89. Bellino S, Rinaldi C, Bozzatello P, et al. Pharmacotherapy of borderline personal-
ity disorder: a systematic review for publication purpose. Curr Med Chem 2011;
18(22):3322–9.
90. Hollander E, Allen A, Lopez RP, et al. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-
controlled trial of divalproex sodium in borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psy-
chiatry 2001;62(3):199–203.
91. Frankenburg FR, Zanarini MC. Divalproex sodium treatment of women with
borderline personality disorder and bipolar II disorder: a double-blind placebo-
controlled pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63(5):442–6.
92. Loew TH, Nickel MK, Muehlbacher M, et al. Topiramate treatment for women with
borderline personality disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin
Psychopharmacol 2006;26(1):61–6.
93. Zanarini MC, Frankenberg FR. Olanzapine treatment of female borderline person-
ality disorder patients: a double blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Clin Psy-
chiatry 2001;62(11):849–54.

View publication stats