A  FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS Because they can be expressed as

In mathematics, functions and equations are defined as an expression, rule, or 1 2

1. y = 3 + 2x – x2 2. y = – (x – 4x + 2) 3. y = x3 – 3x
law that defines relationship between two quantities: a domain (or input) and a 3
range (or output). Normally, these quantities are represented by variables B. The following are NOT functions
wherein the input is the dependent variable and the output is the independent
variable. 4. x2 + y2 – 2x – 3 = 0 5. y2 – x – 4y = 5 6. x2 – 6y2 + 2xy + 2 = 0
Functions differ from equations in the manner of assignment of the domain and Because Items 4 and 5 have two values of y, i.e.,
range. In a function, there should be only one range to each domain (we call this
one-to-one correspondence), and in an equation there can be more than one. 4. y =  3  2 x  x 2 5. y = 2  x 1
Strictly speaking, a function is a special case of an equation.
while Item 6 cannot be transformed into (1).
Remember This
2. Based on Graph. This is called the “vertical line test” of a function. If a
All functions are equations but not all equations are functions. vertical line (parallel to y-axis is passed on the graph of an equation, except at
tangent points, and if the said line intersects at only one point in the graph, then
the equation is a function. Otherwise, the same is NOT a function.
B  REPRESENTING FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Illustration 2
There are four methods by which functions and equations maybe represented.
These are: The following are the graphs of the curves of Illustration 1. Please study them
1. By mapping diagram 3. Based on equation format very carefully and observe their behavior WRT the straight (green) line.

2. Using an ordered pairs 4. Based on graph

1. y 4. y
Note: We will just discuss the last two items as we will be using them in our
Differential Equations course. x
Explanation
x
1. Based on Equation Format. If the variables of an equation (say x and y) can
be separated into Straight Line Straight Line

y = f(x) (1)
which means that if for every x there corresponds one and only one value of y, 2. y 5. y
otherwise, the same will remain as an equation.
x
Illustration 1
x
A. The following are functions:
Straight Line Straight Line
1. x2 + y – 2x – 3 = 0 2. x2 – 4x + 3y = 2 3. x3 + –3x – y = 0

1 2
3. y 6. y variables in the function (hence the word “dependent”). Its value varies as the
value of independent variables is changed. This is also called the “output” of the
x function.
x
2. Dedependent Variable (DV). This variable depends on the independent
variables in the function (hence the word “dependent”). Its value varies as the
value of independent variables is changed. This is also called the “output” of the
Straight Line Straight Line function.

Remember This
Explanation
Independent variable (IV) serves as the domain or input of a function
The vertical line and the graphs of Items 1, 2 and 3 intersect at exactly one point or equation and represented by the x-axis, while the dependent
(hence, a function), while the same line and the graphs of items 4, 5 and 6 variable (DV) serves as the range or output of a function or equation
intersect at two points (hence, not a function). and represented by the y -axis.

C  TYPES OF FUNCTIONS, EQUATIONS AND THEIR C.2  Types of Functions

VARIABLES There are several types of functions and equations which you covered in
Functions and equations are mathematical statements representing the previous mathematics courses. Some of them are algebraic, transcendental, odd
relationship among facts, ideas and phenomenon occurring in the real world. functions, even functions, neither even nor odd, piecewise-defined functions,
Hence they contain equality sign “=” to represent their relationship among and implicit and explicit functions and equations. Due to lack of time (this is just
variables and constants. your review, anyway), we will just cover the last two types of functions since they
are the ones that we will be dealing with in our DE course.
C.1  Types of Variables Discussion
Variables are symbols (such as x, y, z, r, t, u, v, w, , , , etc.) used to 1. Explicit Functions and Equations. These functions and equations are in the
represent the quantities in functions and equations. They can be assigned with form of
different values in different situations. When assigned with a specific value, a
variable become constant. y = f(x) (1) z = f(x, y) (2)
There are always two types of variables in a function or equation: the wherein one variable is “explicitly expressed” in terms of the other. The LHS
independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (IV). variable is the dependent variable (DV) while the RHS is the independent
variable (IV).
Discussion
Note: Eq. (1) is an implicit function containing one DV and one IV, while Eq. (2)
1. Independent Variable (IV). This is a variable that can be assigned or is an implicit function containing one DV and two IVs.
manipulated with any value or data. Its value does not depend on other variables
in the function (hence the word “independent”). The assigned value to this Remember This
variable is called an “input” to the function.
In an explicit function and equation, only DV in its linear algebraic
form appears (or isolated) on the LHS of the equation and
2. Dedependent Variable (DV). This variable depends on the independent
everything on the RHS is the IVs.
3 4
Illustration 3 1. x2 – 2x + 3y = 1 3. x2 + y2 + 2xy – 3x – y = 2 4. ln st – 2 ln t – 1 = 0
The following are explicit functions: 2
2. y + 2xy – 3x – y = 5 5. sin  + tan  –  = 
2

1. y = 2 + 3x – x3 3. r = 2 sin  + cos 2 5. t = euv + u sin v Solution:

1  sin  1 x 2 1. x2 – 2x + 3y = 1
2. p = q + r  1 4.  = 6. z =
1  cos  1 y
a. Solving for x ITO y:
2. Implicit Functions and Equations. These are functions and equations x2 – 2x + 1 = 1 – 3y + 1
where all variables are combined together on the LHS of the equation. In symbol
f(x, y) = c (3) f(x, y, z) = c (4) (x – 1)2 = 2 – 3y  x – 1 =  2  2y

Explanation x = 1  2  2y DV: x IV: y Answer.

In their implicit forms, both DV and IV of functions and equations are combined Note that the above answer also means
on the LHS of the equation and only the constant (sometimes zero) appears on
the RHS. It is not therefore clear which of the two variables is the DV or IV x = 1 + 2  2 y and x = 1 – 2  2y Answer.
unless the same is transformed into Eqs. (1) or (2), respectively. In some cases,
however, it is algebraically impossible to transform implicit form into explicit form b. Solving for y ITO x:
as we will see later on. A usual procedure is to assign or assume a DV and the
other(s) as IV(s). 3y = 2 + 2x – x2
1
Illustration 4 y= (2 + 2x – x2) DV: y IV: v Answer.
3
The following are implicit functions.
2. y2 + 2xy – 3x – y = 5
2 2 2 2 3 2 2
1. x – 2x + 3y = 1 3. x + y + z + = 4 5. r – 3st + rs + 5 = 0
a. Solving for x ITO y:
 1
2. +=0 4. x2 – 2xy + 3yz + 12 = 0 y2 + x(2y – 3) – y = 5  x(2y – 3) = 5 + y – y2
 2
5  y  y2
3. Converting Implicit Functions and Equations into their Explicit Forms. x= DV: x IV: y Answer.
For the purpose of determining which of the two variables in a function or 2y  3
equation is DV or IV, the immediate solution is to transform the same into Eq. (1)
b. Solving for y ITO x: (Not possible)
or (2). This can be done by appropriate algebraic operations. Again, there are
instances where we cannot convert Eqs. (1) or (2) into (3) or (4), respectively or,
3. x2 + y2 + 2xy – 3x – y = 2
if converted, the RHS of the Eqs. (1) or (2) have two or more values. In both
cases, we are not dealing with a function but an equation.
Note: The function cannot be expressed in its explicit form. Hence, the DV is
Example 1 either x or y and IV is y or x.

Transform the following functions into their explicit form for and identify the DV 4. ln st – 2 ln t – 1 = 0
and IV(s).
5 6
a. Solving for s ITO t: equations with n unknowns, quadratic, cubic, quartic, quantic, radical and
polynomial functions among others belong to this kind of function.
ln st – 2 ln t – 1 = 0  ln s + ln t – 2 ln t – 1 = 0
ln s – ln t – 1 = 0  ln s = ln t + 1 Function
eln s = e(ln t + 1) = eln t e1
s = et DV: s IV: t Answer. Algebraic Transcendental Combined
b. Solving for t ITO s
Trigonometric
ln st – 2 ln t – 1 = 0  ln s + ln t – 2 ln t – 1 = 0
ln s – ln t – 1 = 0  ln t = ln s – 1 Exponential
ln t (ln s – 1) ln t – 1 ln t
e =e =e e =e /e
Logarithmic
t = s/e DV: t IV: s Answer.
Hyperbolic
Question: Are the two answers the same?
Inverse
5. sin2  + tan  –  = 
a. Solving for  ITO : Figure1 – Classification of Functions
sin  + tan  –  = 
2
 sin  =  +  – tan 
2
2. Transcendental Functions. As the name suggests, these functions contain
sin  =      tan transcendental function name such as logarithmic (log or ln), trigonometric (sin,
cos, tan, cot, sec and csc), exponential (e or exp), hyperbolic (sinh, cosh, tanh,

 = arcsin      tan   DV: t IV: s Answer. –1 –1 –1
–1
cosh, sech and csch) inverse trigonometric (arcsin or sin , arccos or cos ,
arctan or tan , arccot or cot , arcsec or sec and arccsc or or csc ), and
–1
–1

b. Solving for  ITO : (Not possible) inverse hyperbolic (arcsin h, arcos h, arctan h, arccot h, arcsec h and arccsc h).

3. Combined Functions. These are functions consisting of two or more

C.3  Classification of Functions functions listed in Items 1 and 2 above. They are combined by means of
algebraic operations specified in Item 1. For instance, algebraic function
We can broadly classify functions into three categories: algebraic, combined with trigonometric function, algebraic function combined with
transcendental and combination of algebraic and transcendental. This is exponential function, trigonometric function combined with exponential function,
diagrammatically shown in Figure 1. algebraic function combined with trigonometric and exponential function, and so
on.
Discussion Illustration 5
1. Algebraic Functions. These functions contain plain variables with
their algebraic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, 1. The following are algebraic functions.
raising to a power, extraction of a root, etc.). Linear (including system of n linear
a. f(x) = x2 – 2x + 3 c. g(y) = 5 – 3y2 b. f(y) = 2 sin  – e
7 8
 p 1 Illustration 6
b. h(p) = d. f(r) = r 4  r
p 1 The following are algebraic equations:
2. The following are transcendental functions. 1. 2(x – 1) = 3x – 5 4. z2 + z = 3 7. 2x – 3y + z = –5
–y 2 2 2
a. f(x) = sin 2x – 2 cos x2 2y
b. g(y) = e + 2e c. f(z) = ln 2z + ln z2
2. y + 4y + 8 = 0 5. (p – 1) = p – 1 8. 4x2 + y2 + 2y = 4

1 w w
3. The following are combined functions. 3. = 6. 5  t 2 = t2 – 1 9. t2 – 2st + s2 = 1
w 1 w
a. f(x) = x sin 2x – 2x c. f(v) = v ln v + 2v e. g(t) = t2 + 2e–t
b. h(s) = es(s2 + 1) d. f(r) = 3ecos r – er f. f(w) = ln (sin w)+ 2w b. Geometric Equations. These are special type of algebraic equations which
you have studied in your Analytic Geometry. They have specific geometric
shapes (e.g., straight line, circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola) and are
C.4  Classification of Equations usually expressed in both general and standard forms.

Aside from their types (as discussed in Section F.6, equations are further Illustration 7
classified according to their form (or the manner in which they are written).
These are Cartesian, polar and parametric, cylindrical and spherical equations. The following are geometric equations and their forms.
Your Sir Anacta will give you the details here.
1. Straight Line
Discussion 2 x y
a. 2x – 3y = 6 b. y = x–2 c. – =1
3 3 2
1. Cartesian Equations. These consist mathematical expressions containing (Implicit/ (Explicit/Slope- (Explicit/
one or more variables in algebraic, transcendental and/or combination of Gen. Form) Intercept Form) Intercept Form)
functions. Their general format is shown in Table 1.
2. Parabola
Table 1. Cartesian Equation Format
1 2
a. x2 – 4x – 3y = 2 b. y = ( x + 4x – 2) c. (x – 2)2 = 3(y + 2
No.of Variables Implicit Form Explicit Form Eq. No. 3
One f(x) = c - (5) (Implicit/Gen. Form) (Explicit Form) (Explicit/Std. Form)

Two f(x,y) = c y = f(x) (2),(1)

3. Circle
Three f(x, y, z) = c z = f(x, y, c) (4),(3)
a. x2 + y2 + 2x – 2y = 3 b. y = 2  8  2x  x 2 c. (x +1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 9
Cartesian equations are further classed into algebraic, geometric (which is a (Implicit/ Gen. Form) (Explicit Form) (Implicit/Std. Form)
special case of algebraic), transcendental and combination of functions.
4. Ellipse
a. Algebraic Equations. These are equations containing plain variables with
their algebraic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
a. x2 + 4y2 – 6x + 8y + 9 = 0 (Implicit/Gen. Form)
exponentiation, extraction of a root, etc.). Included here are linear and
polynomial equations.
(Explicit Form)
b. y = –1 ½  x 2  6 x  5

9 10
 ( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2 (Implicit/Gen. Form) 3. ln 2t + 2 ln t = e Logarithmic
c. + =1
4 1
d. Equations Containing Combined Functions. These are equations
5. Hyperbola consisting of algebraic and transcendental functions, combined by means of
a. 5x2 – 2y2 + 10x – 12y = 23 (Implicit/Std. Form) algebraic operations specified in Item 1a.

 
5 2 ( x  1) 2 ( y  3) 2 Illustration 9
b. y = 3  x  2x  1 c. – =1
2 2 5 The following are combined equations.
(Explicit/Std. Form) (Explicit Form)
1. rs – cos2 r = 1 Alg/Trigo 6. 2 ln m + sec2 n = 2 Log/Trigo
2. x2ey – y = 3 Alg/Exp 7. e(1 + sin r) = 1 Alg/Exp/Trigo
Remember This
3. x2 + 2 ln2 y = 4 Alg/Log 8. ex sin x – y ln x = 1 Alg/Log/Trigo
How to recognize a geometric curve:
4. e – r cos  = 1 Exp/Trigo 9. ew – ln(v + 1) = 4 Exp/Log
Straight Line: Either x or y (or both) is present in linear form. If both x and
x
y are present, the line is inclined; if only x is present, the 5. ln x – y (e + sin x) = 1 Alg/Exp/Log/Trigo
line is // to the y-axis; and if only y is present, the line is //
to the x -axis.
2. Polar Equations. These are equations that are expressed in polar (or
Parabola: Either x2 or y2 is present. angular) form and characterized by two variables: a radius r and a reference
angle . (This time, we will be very specific with these two variables r and .) We
Circle: Both x2 and y2 are present and both positive with similar
will explore into the details of this type of equation when we reach the topic on
coefficients.
graphing of equations (Section F.7.2) of this module. Its equation format is
Ellipse: Both x2 and y2 are present; both positive but with different
r = f() (5) or f(r,) = c (6)
coefficients.
Hyperbola: Both x2 and y2 are present; one is positive and the other is Illustration 10
negative, irrespective of coefficients.
The following are polar equations:

c. Transcendental Equations. These are equations that contain transcendental 1. r = 2 5. r2 = 2 cos 2 + 1 9. r = 3 + 2 sec 
functions shown in Figure 6 of your Module 1. (Recall: Trigonometric, 2. r = 2(1 + cos ) 6. cos2  – r cos  = 1 10. r = 2 tan  sin 
exponential, logarithmic, hyperbolic and inverse functions are all transcendental
functions). 3. r2 – 6r cos  =0 7. r2 = 4 cos 2
2 1
Illustration 8 4. r = 8. r =
3 sin   cos 1  cos
The following are transcendental equations from Illustration 1.
3. Parametric Equations. These are paired equations that define a group of
1. e2z – 5ez + 4 = 0 Exponential 4. tanh x + cosh x =  Hyperbolic quantities as function of an independent variable called parameter. They are
normally used to express the coordinates of points that make up a geometric
2. sin 2 + cos  =  Trigonometric 5. arcsin2 x – arcos x = 1 Inverse
11 12
object (such as a curve or surface). The resulting equation is parametric where:
represent- tation or parameterization. The commonly used parameter symbol
 = radius of the sphere
are the letters “t” for time “u” distance or and “θ” for angle. We will continue with
this discussion in Section F.7.3  = angle from the x-axis to the point in the sphere
 = angle from the z-axis to the point in the sphere
Note: For this course, we will just use the letter “t” to represent a parameter.
Hence, its format will be We will discuss more of this in Section F.7.5 of this module.
x= f(t) (7) and y = g(t) (8) Illustration 13
Illustration 11 The following are spherical equations:
The following are parametric equations: 1
1.  = sin  cos  3. z = r2 cos2  – r2 sin2  5. z2 = r2 cos2  + r sin 
4 3
1. x = t ; y = t + 1 2. x = t ; y = (3 – t) 3. x = u ; y = 3u + 1
3 2. z = r2 cos  sin  + 1 4. 3r cos  + 3r sin  + z = 3
2
4. x = 2u – 1; y = u + 1 5. x = 3 + 5 cos θ ; y = –2 + 5 sin θ
6. Special Type of Equations. These “pre-defined” equations that have distinct
6. x = –1 + 2 cos θ ; y = 4 + 3 sin θ characteristics and shape. They were studied and formulated by noted
mathematicians and some of them were named in their behalf. For instance, the
4. Cylindrical Equations. These equations are expressed ITO cylindrical Spiral of Archimedes was studied by Archimedes about 225 BC; the Witch of
coordinates. Its form is Agnessi was studied by Maria Agnesi in 1748; the Cissoid of Diocles was
formulated by Diocles during the 180 BC; the Folium of Descartes was first
z = f(r, ) (9) or f(r,, z) = c (10) proposed by Rene Descartes in 1638; Quadratrix of Hippias was discovered
where: by Hippias of Elias in 430 BC; the Lemniscate of Bernoulli was studied by
Jacques Bernoulli in 1694; Conchoid of de Sluze was studied in 1662 by René
z = height of the cylinder r = radius of the cylinder François Walter, baron de Sluze; etc.
 = angle from the x-axis to the point in the cylinder
Illustration 14
We will discuss more of this in Section F.7.4 of this module.
The following are some of the special type of equations with their corresponding
Cartesian, polar and parametric equations:
Illustration 12
1. Spiral of Archimedes
The following are cylindrical equations:
3. z = r2 cos  sin  + 1
 y
1. z = r – 2 2. z2 + 4r2 = 1 a. Cartesian: x 2  y 2 = arctan   b. Polar: r = a
x
4. r cos  + sin  + z =  5. z = r cos  + r sin 
2 2 2

2. Witch of Agnessi
5. Spherical Equations. These equations are expressed ITO spherical
coordinates. Its format is a. Cartesian: y(x2 + 4a2) = 8a3

 = f(, ) (11) or f(, , ) = c (12) 2a

b. Parametric: x = 2at, y = x = 2a cot t, y = a(1 – cos 2t)
1 t 2
13 14
3. Cissoid of Diocles 9. Lemniscate of Gerono
a. Cartesian: x3 – y2(2a – x) = 0 x(x2 + y2) = 2ay2 a. Cartesian: x4 = a2(x2 – y2) b. Polar: r2 = a2 cos 2 sec4

b. Polar: r = 2a tan  sin  c. Parametric: x = a sin t, y = a sin t cos t

2at 2 2at 3 t t  t3
1  t 2 2
c. Parametric: x = ,y= 2 2
x = 2a sin t, y = 2a sin t tan t x = 2a , y = 2a
1 t 2 1 t2 1 t2

4. Folium of Descartes 10. Trisectrix of Maclaurin

3a sec tan  a. Cartesian: x(x2 + y2) = a(3x2 – y2)
a. Cartesian: x3 + y3 = 3axy b. Polar: r =
1  tan 3  sin 3
b. Polar: r = 2a = a(4 cos  – sec )
sin 2
3at 3at 2
c. Parametric: x = ,y=
1 t3 1 t3 t2 3 t2 3
c. Parametric Equations: x = a , y = at
5. Quadratrix of Hippias t2 1 t2 1

 y  2a 2 a Note: For more of these types of curves, your Sir Anacta may just refer you to
a. Cartesian: x = y cot   b. Polar: r = = csc  the following websites:
 2a   sin  
1. mathworld.wolfram.com 2. mathcurve.com 3. intmath.com
2at cot t 2at 4. en.wikipedia.org 5. st-andrews.ac.uk
c. Parametric: x = ,y=
 
6. Lemniscate of Bernoulli D  GRAPHING OF FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS
a. Cartesian: (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 – y2) b. Polar: r2 = a2 cos 2 In the previous sections of this module, we merely described and familiarized
equations analytically (i.e., based on their format, the functions involved and the
a cos t a sin t cos t variables used). To add more spice to our discussion, we will go further into the
c. Parametric: x= , y=
1  sin 2 t 1  sin 2 t details on describing them graphically (i.e., ITO they appear). But in doing so,
we will first revisit (if you have already taken this up in your Analytic Geometry)
7. Conchoid of de Sluze the different coordinate systems.

a. Cartesian: (x – 1)(x2 + y2) = ax2 b. Polar: r = sec  + a cos  D.1  The Different Coordinate Systems
c. Parametric Equations: x = (sec t + a cos t) cos t y = (sec t + a cos t) sin t
There are four most commonly used coordinate systems:
8. Kampyle of Eudoxus
1. The Cartesian Coordinate Systems
4 2
a. Cartesian: x = a (x + y ) 2 2
b. Polar: r = a sec  2
2. The Polar Coordinate System
c. Parametric: x = a sec t, y = a tan t sec t 3. The Cylindrical Coordinate System
15 16
 4. The Spherical Coordinate System coordinates and equations involving three variables. The system is used to plot
surfaces. A right-handed coordinate system is shown in Figure 4.
We will discuss their details here.
z z = f(x, y) or
Discussion
z f(x, y, z) = 0
1. The Cartesian Coordinate Systems. These are the most common and P(x, y, z)
widely used coordinate systems where the Cartesian points and equations are Surface
plotted and graphed in a mutually orthogonal intersecting lines called axes.
There are two types of this system: The Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate
System (RCCS) and the Spatial Cartesian Coordinate System (SCCS). y
0
a. The Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System (RCCS). The RCCS (also y
known as Planar Coordinate System (from the word “plane”, 2D Coordinate x
System (2D means two-dimensional) or simply the xy-plane) consists of two
orthogonal (or mutually perpendicular) lines called axes intersecting at a point x
called origin 0 (Figure 2). This system is used to plot points with two coordinates Figure 3 – The Spatial Cartesian Coordinate System
and graph equations with two variables. Being planar system, only curves
(including a straight line) can be plotted here.
Important The Right-Hand Rule:
y The orientation of the three axes in the SCCS is governed by this rule: “Using
y = f(x) or
f(x, y) = c your right hand, your four fingers curl from the +x-axis to the +y-axis and
your thumb points to the +z-axis.”
y P(x, y)
Curve
z

Figure 4 – The
0 x x Right-Handed
Spatial Cartesian
Figure 2 – The Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System Coordinate System
0 y
b. The Spatial Cartesian Coordinate System (SCCS). Also known as the 3D
coordinate system or xyz-coordinate system, the SCCS consists of three x
mutually perpendicular coordinate axes as shown in Figure 3.

Being spatial (meaning, in space) in nature, the system consists of three planes: Remember This
the xy-plane (or z = 0 plane), the xz-plane (or y = 0 plane), and the yz-plane (or x
= 0 plane). (More details to this are included in the Attachment of this module for The RCCS is used to plot points P(x, y) and graph equations with two
your reference.) Just like the RCCS, these three axes and planes intersect at a variables, while SCCS is used to plot P(x, y, z) and graph equations with
common point called origin 0. This system is used to plot points with three three variables.

17 18
2. The Polar Coordinate System (PCS) or Polar Axes consist of a circle with
radius r and a reference horizontal line (called polar axis or simply pole) z
passing at the center of the circle which is also the origin of the system. The
address of the point P is located by the radial distance r (or the distance from P(x, y, z)
the origin to the circumference of the circle) and an angle  (in terms of degrees r P(r, , z)
or radians) measured in a counterclockwise direction from the positive side of , z)
the pole. This is shown in Figure 5.

/2 rad Cylinder

Direction z
Circle of 
0
r P(r,)  r y

 rad  0 rad x
+
0 2 rad Figure 6 – The Cylindrical Coordinate System (CCS)

Polar
axis z
3/2 rad

Figure 5 – The Polar Coordinate System (PCS)

Sphere P(x, y, z)
3. The Cylindrical Coordinate System. As the name suggests, the Cylindrical P(, , )
Coordinate System (CCS) is described in terms of a cylinder with radius r and , z)
height z fitted in the SCCS and oriented in such a way that the center of its
 
bottom base coincides with the origin of the SCCS. This is shown in Figure 6. 0
 y
The address of the point P (which should be at the surface of the cylinder) is

defined by its radius r, the angle  (in terms of degrees or radians) measured
from the + x-axis of the SCCS to the radial distance of the point and the height z
of the point from the origin 0. x

4. The Spherical Coordinate System (SCS) (Figure 7) is uses a sphere fitted Figure 7 – The Spherical Coordinate System (SCS)
to SCCS in such a way that its center coincides with the origin of the SCCS. The
location of the point P (which should be at the surface of the sphere) is defined
by the radius  of the sphere, the angle  (in terms of degrees or radians) D.2  Relationship among Coordinate Systems
measured from the +x-axis of the SCCS to projection of  along the center
sphere and the angle  (also in degrees or radians) taken from the z-axis to . Each coordinate system has their distinct way of locating points and describing
equations. This is shown in Table 2.
19 20
 Table 2. Description of points and equations in coordinate systems. sin  y  y
tan  = = (17)  = arctan   (18)
cos x x
Coordinate System Point Coord. Equation
Rectangular (x, y) f(x, y) = c
x y
Rectangular (x, y, z) f(x, y, z) = c r= = (19) r= x2  y2 (20)
Polar (r, ) f(r, ) = c cos sin 
Cylindrical (r, , z) f(r, , z) = c
Spherical (, , ) f(, , ) = c Question: How can points in rectangular form be converted into polar form, and
equations in rectangular form be transformed into polar form?
Notice that their equations are completely dependent with their respective point Answer: Your Sir Anacta will give you some examples.
coordinates. Our task here is to establish the relationship among the four
coordinate systems which help aid us in converting one type of equation into a. Converting Points and Equations in Rectangular Forms into Polar
another. Forms. Points and equations expressed in their rectangular forms may be
converted into polar forms using Eqs. (13), (14), (18) and (20).
Discussion
Example 2
1. Relationship between Rectangular and Polar Coordinate Systems.
Looking at Figures 3 and 5, the two coordinate systems can be combined into a A. Transform the following points into their equivalent polar coordinates and
single coordinate system wherefrom we can get the relationship between the sketch their figure.
coordinates of their points: P(x, y) and P(r, ). This is shown in Figure 8.
1. A(3, 0) 2. B(4, 3) 3. C(1, – 3 ) 4. D(–2, –2) 5. E(0, 5)
` y
Note: Before we proceed with the solution, recall that anglular measurements
Circle may be expressed in two ways: degrees (deg or ) and radians (rad). For the
P(x, y) sake of visual clarity, however, your Sir Anacta suggests that you use degrees
P(r, ) instead of radians (e.g. 30 instead of /6 rad or 0.524 rad) because the sooner
is much easier to interpret than the latter. In both cases, however, you need to
r use the conversion factors:
y
Conversion Factors:
 + Pole
x 1deg = 1 = (/180) rad = 0.01745 rad (21)
0 A x
1 rad = (180/) deg = 57.296 (22)
Figure 8 – The RCCS and PCS Combined
or set your calculator to your desired mode.
From Fig. 12, we can establish the relationship between P(x, y) and P(r,) using
Trigonometry on the right triangle OAP, thus Solution:
x = r cos  (13) y = r sin  (14) 1. A(x, y) = A(3, 0)  x=3 and y = 0.
x y
cos  = (15) sin  = (16) Then using Eqs. (24) and (27), we have
r r

21 22
  y 0 4. D(–2, –2) means x = –2 and y = –2. y Fig. Ex. 2A.4
r= x2  y2 = 32  0 2 = 3  = arctan   = arctan   = arctan 0 = 0 /2
x 3
r= (2) 2  (2) 2 = 2 2
 A(3,0)  A(3, 0) Answer.
y 2
 = arctan   = 3.93 rad
Fig. Ex. 2A.1 90 A(3, 0) 2  –2 0 rad x
A(3, 0) D(–2, –2)
= 1.25 rad 0 + Pole
Remember This: If a point lies on , , 1.25
D( 2 2
the +x-axis, its rectangular and polar C(, 300)
 D(–2, –2) –2 r= 2 2
coordinates are the same. 180 r=3 0 x
0  = 0 3 + Pole D( 2 2 , 1.25 rad) Answer.
C(, 300) 1.25
2. B(x, y) = B(4, 3) 3/2

x = 4 and y = 3. :
5. E(x, y) = E(0, 5)  x = 0 and y = 5.
Again, using Eqs. (24) and (27), we have 270
3
r= 0 2  32 = 5   = arctan   = 0.5 rad Fig. Ex. 2A.5
y 0 y
r= x y =
2 2
4 3 = 5
2 2
90 /2
B(4, 3)  E(0, 3)  A(3, 90) Answer. 3
 y 3 B(5, 36.87)
 = arctan   = arctan   = 36.87 r=5 3
x 4 B. Transform the following r=5
equations into their equivalent
 A(4,3)  A(5, 36.87) Answer. 180 0 x polar forms and show their graphs.  0 rad x
0 4 + Pole 0 + Pole
Note: We will solve Items 3, 4 and 5 1. Straight Line, y = 2x – 3
 = 36.87
by going directly into their values, 2. Circle, x2 + y2 + 4x = 0
following the procedure of Items 1 and 2. Fig. Ex. 2A.2 3. Parabola, x2 – 2x – 3y = 5
270 3/2
4. Cross Curve, x2 + y2 = 4x2y2
3. C(x, y) = C(1, – 3 )  x = 1 and y = – 3 .
5. Cardioid, (x2 + y2 – 2x)2 = 4(x2 + y2)
r= 12   3  2 = 2 90
y Fig. Ex. 2A.3
Solution: Fig. Ex. 2B.1
r=2
 3  = 300 1. y = 2x – 3
 = arctan  
 1 
  Using Eq. (22), we have
 
180 0 x
= arctan  3 = 300 0 1 2 + Pole r sin  = 2r cos – 3

 C(1, – 3 )  C(2, 300) Answer. r (sin  – 2 cos ) = 3

 3 C(4,  3 )
Important: For Items 4 and 5, set your 3
270 C(3, 300) r= Answer.
calculator to “Rad” mode. sin   2 cos
23 24
2. x2 + y2 + 4x = 0 5. (x2 + y2 – 2x)2 = 4(x2 + y2)
Using Eqs. (22) and (25) we have Using Eqs. (2-10) and (2-12) we have
r2 + 4(r cos ) = 0 (r2 – 2r cos )2 = 4r2
Fig. Ex. 2B.2
r2 + 4r cos  = 0 (r2 – 2r cos )2 = (2r)2 Fig. Ex. 2B.5
r + 4 cos  = 0 r – 2r cos  = 2r
2

r = –4 cos  Answer r(r – 2 cos ) = 2r

r – 2 cos  = 2
3. x2 – 2x – 3y = 5
r = 2 + 2 cos  = 2(1 + cos ) Answer.
Using Eq. (22), we have
(r cos )2 – 2(r cos ) – 3(r sin ) = 5 Table 3. Summary of Results for Example 2
r cos  – 2r cos  – 3r sin  = 5
2 2
No. Curve Equation (Rectangular/Polar)
r cos2  – 2 cos  – 3 sin  = 5 3
1 Straight Line y = 2x – 3 r=
s in  2 cos 
r cos2  = 2 cos  + 3 sin  + 5 Fig. Ex. 2B.3
2 Circle x2 + y2 + 4x = 0 r = –4 cos 
2 cos  3 sin   5
r=
cos2  3 Para-bola 2
x – 2x – 3y = 5 r = sec  (5 sec  + 3 tan  + 2)
4 Cross Curve x2 + y2 = 4x2y2 r = csc 2
r = 2 sec  + 3 tan  sec  + 5 sec2 
5 Cardioid 2 2 2 2
(x + y – 2x) = 4(x + y ) 2
r = 2(1 + cos )
r = sec  (5 sec  + 3 tan  + 2) Answer.

4. x2 + y2 = 4x2y2 Observation: Some curves have simpler equations in their rectangular form
(e.g., straight lines and parabolas), while others in their polar forms (e.g. circles,
Using Eqs. (22) and (27) we have cross-curve and cardioid).
r2 = 4(r cos )2(r sin )2
r2 = 4r4 (cos2  sin2 ) Fig. Ex. 2B.4
b. Converting Points and Equations in Polar Forms into Rectangular
Forms. Points and equations expressed in polar form may be converted into
1 = 4r2 (cos2  sin2 ) their respective rectangular forms using Eqs. (13) to (20)). In case of point
4r2 (cos2  sin2 ) = 1 coordinates, be aware on the angular unit used (rad or degrees) and use the
appropriate conversion factor.
2r cos  sin  = 1
r(2 sin  cos ) = 1 Example 3
r(sin 2) = 1 A. Transform the following points into their equivalent rectangular form and
r = 1 sin 2 = csc 2 Answer. sketch their figures.

25 26
 1. F(4, 45) 2. G( 10 , 100) 3. H(3, 270) Important: For Items 4 and 5, set your y
calculator to “Rad” mode. 90
4. I(2.5, 1.2 rad) 5. J(5, 6 rad)
y 4. I(2.5, 1.2 rad)  r = 2.5 and  = 1.5 rad.
B(2.83, 2.83)  = 1.5
90
B(4, 45)
Solution: x = 2.5 cos (1.2) = –2.02
2.83 180 –2.02 0 x
1. F(r, ) = F(4, 45)  r = 4 and  = 45. 4 y = 2.5 sin (1.2) = –1.47
0 + Pole
Then using Eqs. (22): 180 45 0 x  I(2.5, 1.2 rad) = F(–2.02, –1.47) –1.47
0 2.83 + Pole Answer.
x = r cos  = 4 cos 45 = 2.83 (–2.02, –1.47) r = 2.5
y = r sin  = 4 sin 45 = 2.83 270
5. J(5, 6 rad)  r = 5 and  = 6 rad.
Fig. Ex. 3A.4
 F(4, 45) = F(2.83, 2.83) Answer. 270 x = 5 cos (6) = 4.80
Fig. Ex. 3A.1
y = 5 sin (6) = –1.40 y
2. G(r, ) = G( 10 , 100) y 90 90 Fig. Ex. 3A.5
G( 10 ,100)  J(5, 6 rad) = J(4.80, –1.40) Answer.
Fig. Ex. 3A.2
G(–0.55, 3.11) =6
r= 10 and  = 100. 3.11 :
Then using Eqs. (22): B. Transform the following polar
100 equations into their equivalent 180 4.80 0 x
x = r cos  = 10 cos 100 180 0 x rectangular form and show their 0 + Pole
–0.55 0 + Pole graphs.
= –0.55 (4.80, –1.40)
r = 10 1. Straight Line, r =
6 –1.40
y = r sin  = 10 sin 100 –2 2 cos  3 sin  r = 5.0
270
= 3.11 2. Parabola, r = csc  (cot  + 2)

 G( 10 , 100) = G(–0.55, 3.11) Answer. Fig. Ex. 3A.3 4 cos  3 sin 

3. Hyperbola, r =
y 3 cos2   2
Note: We will solve Items 3, 4 and 5 by 90
going directly into their values, following 4. Cissoid of Diocles, r = 2 tan  sin 
the procedure of Items 1 and 2. 5. Lemniscate of Bernoulli, r2 = cos 2
 = 270
3. H(4.5, 270)  r = 4.5 and  = 270. Solution:
180 0 x
x = 4.5 cos 270 = 0 y = 4.5 sin 270 = –4.5 0 + Pole
6
 H(4.5, 270) = F(0, –4.5) 1. r =
Answer. r = –4.5 2 cos  3 sin 
–4.5 r(2 cos  + 3 sin ) = 6
270 Fig. Ex. 3B.1
Using Eq. (23), we have
27 28
 4. r = 2 tan  sin 
 x y
r 2  3  = 6 2x + 3y = 6 Answer.
 r r  2 sin 2  2 sin 
r= = sin 
cos cos
2. r = csc  (cot  + 2)
r cos  = 2 sin2 
r = cot  csc  + 2 csc 
Mult. The LHS by “1 = cos2  + sin2 ”
cos 1 2
= + r cos  (cos2  + sin2 ) = 2 sin2 
sin  sin  sin 
r (cos3  + sin2  cos ) = 2 sin2 
cos 2 sin  cos  2 sin 
r= + =
sin 2  sin 2  sin 2  rcos3  + rsin2  cos ) = 2 sin2 

r sin2  = cos  + 2 sin  Fig. Ex. 3B.2 rcos3  = 2 sin2  – rsin2  cos 
Fig. Ex. 3B.4
r sin  – cos  – 2 sin  = 0
2 rcos3  = sin2 (2 – r cos )

r2 sin2  – r cos  – 2r sin  = 0  (r sin )2 – (r cos ) – 2(r sin ) = 0 Multiply by “r2”

Using Eq. (23) gives r3 cos3  = r2 sin2 (2 – r cos ) = 0  (r cos  )3 = (r sin )2 (2 – r cos ) = 0

y2 – x – 2y = 0 Answer. Using Eq. (23):

x3 = y2(2 – x) = 0  x3 – y2(2 – x) = 0 Answer.
4 cos  3 sin 
3. r =
3 cos2   2
5. r2 = cos 2
r(3 cos2  – 2) = 4 cos  – 3 sin 
But: cos 2 = cos2  – sin2 
r( cos  + 2 cos  – 2) = 4 cos  – 3 sin 
2 2

r2 = cos2  – sin2 
r[cos2  – 2(1 – cos2 )] = 4 cos  – 3 sin 
Multiply by “r2”
But: 1 – cos2  = sin2 
(r2)2 = r2 cos2  – r2 sin2 
r[cos  – 2 sin )] = 4 cos  – 3 sin 
2 2

(r2)2 = (r cos )2 – (r sin )2

r cos  – 2r sin  = 4 cos  – 3 sin 
2 2

Substitute Eqs. (23) and (25) gives Fig. Ex. 3B.5

Fig. Ex. 3B.3
Multiplying by “r”: 2 2 2 2 2
(x + y ) = x – y Answer.
r2 cos2  – 2r2 sin2  = 4r cos  – 3r sin 
(r cos )2 – 2(r sin )2 = 4r cos  – 3r sin  2. Relationship Between Cartesian, Polar and Parametric Equations. The
parametric equations are paired equations which are derived from either
Using Eq. (23):
rectangular or polar equations. This equations are expressed in terms of a
x2 – 2y2 = 4x – 3y  x2 – 2y2 – 4x + 3y = 0 Answer. common quantity (say time t, angle θ or another variable u) called parameter
29 30
and use the same coordinate system with the rectangular equations. Our focus a. Converting Rectangular Equations into Parametric Equations. Parametric
here will be on the transformation aspect only since graphing was already equations of each curve are patterned from their respective algebraic equations.
discussed in the previous section. Table 3 lists these equations. If the algebraic equation is given in its general form, you must convert the same
first into their standard form before applying the formulas.
Table 3 Algebraic and parametric equations of some curves
Example 4
Eq. Curve Algebraic Equation Parametric Equation
A. Convert the following equations into their parametric forms.
1, General Curve y = f(x) or f(x,y) = c x = f(t) and y = g(t)
1. Straight line: 2x – 4y = 7
2 Straight Line y = mx + b x = t, y = mt + b
2. Parabola: y2 – 5x + 2y – 9 = 0
3 Parabola   (y – k)2 = 4a(x – h) x = h + at2 , y = k + 2at
3. Circle: x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y – 4 = 0
Parabola  
2 2
4 (x – h) = 4a(y – k) x = h + 2at, y = k + at
4. Ellipse: 4x2 + y2 – 16x + 6y + 21 = 0
2 2 2
5 Circle (x – h) + (y – k) = r x = h + r cos t, y = k + r sin t
5. Hyperbola: x2 – 9y2 + 6x + 18y = 9
( x  h) 2
( y  k) 2 x = h + a cos t,
6 Ellipse + =1 Solution:
a 2
b 2 y = k + b sin t

x = h + a sec θ, 1. 2x – 4y = 7
( x  h) 2 ( y  k)2
7 Hyperbola + =1
a2 b2 y = k + b tan θ 4y = 2x – 7  y = ½ x – 7/4
 m=½, b = – 7/4
y2(a2 – x2) = (x2 + 2ay – cos2 t
8 Bicorn x = a sin t, y = a
a2)2 2  cos t PEs: x = t; y = ½ t – 7/4 Answer.
x = a sin t, y = a tan t(1 – sin t) 2. y2 – 5x + 2y – 9 = 0
2 2 2 2
9 Right Strophoid x(x + y ) = a(x – y ) = 0 1 t2 y2 – 5x + 2y – 9 = 0
x= a , y = tx
1 t2
y2 + 2y = 5x + 9  y2 + 2y + 1 = 5x + 9 + 1
x = a sin t, y = a tan t(1 – sin t)
(y + 1)2 = 5x + 10  (y + 1)2 = 5(x + 2)
Trisectrix of x = 2 + cos t, y = –3 + 2 sin t
10 y2(a – x) = x2(3a + x)  h = –2, k = –1, 4a = 5, a = 5/4
Maclaurin 1 t2
x= a , y = tx 2
1 t2 PEs: x = –2 + (5/4)t , y = –1 + (5/2)t Answer.

1 t2 3. x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y – 4 = 0
11 Kappa Curve y2(x2 + y2) = a2x2 x= a , y = tx
1 t2 x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y – 4 = 0  x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y = 4
12 x = a cos t (1 – cos t), (x2 – 2x + 1) + (y2 + 4y + 4) = 9  (x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 32
(x2 + y2 + ax)2 = a2(x2 +
Cardioid
y2) y = a sin t (1 – cos t)  h = 1, k = –2, r=3

31 32
PEs: x = 1 + 3 cos t, y = –2 + 3 sin t Answer. Using (1 – cos2 t) = sin2 t) in (6c), applying a2b2 = (ab)2 to the resulting equation
gives
4. 4x2 + y2 – 16x + 6y + 21 = 0
(y – k)2 = r2 sin2 t = (r sin t)2
2 2 2 2
4x – 16x + 16 + y + 6y + 9 = 4  4(x – 4x + 4) + (y + 6y + 9) = 4
y – k = r sin t or y = k + r sin t Answer.
2 2
4(x – 2) + (y + 3) = 4
2at 2
( x  2) 2 ( y  3) 2 ( x  2) 2 ( y  3) 2 7. x3 – y2(2a – x) = 0 (7a) x= (7b)
+ =1  + =1 1 t2
1 4 2 2
1 2
 a = 1, b = 2, h = 2, k = –3 Caution: The Algebra involved in the solution is quite deep and complicated.

PEs: x = 2 + cos t, y = –3 + 2 sin t Answer. Solving for “y2” in (7a) then substituting (7b) into the resulting equation, we have
3
5. x2 – 9y2 + 6x + 18y = 9  2at 2 
 
x2 – 9y2 + 6x + 18y = 9  x2 + 6x + 9 – 9y2 + 18y – 9 = 9 x3 1 t 2 
2
y = =   (7c)
(x2 + 6x + 9) – 9(y2 – 2y + 1) = 9  (x + 3)2 – 9(y –1)2 = 9 2a  x 2at 2
2a 
1 t2
( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2 ( x  3) 2 ( y  1) 2
– =1  – =1 n
9 1 32 12 an a
Applying (abc)n = anbncn, (am)n = amn and =   to the numerator of (7c)
 a = 3, b = 1, h = –3, k=1 b n b
a c ad  bc
PEs: x = –3 + 3 sec θ, y = 1 + tan θ Answer. and – = to its denominator gives
b d bd
B. For the given curves, find the other pair of parametric equation. 8a 3t 6
2
6. Circle, (x – h) + (y – k) = r , 2 2
x = h + r cos t, find y.
1  t  2 3

2a 1  t   2at

y2 = (7-d)
2 2
3 2 2at 3
7. Cissoid of Diocles, x – y (2a – x) = 0, y= , find x.
1 t2 1 t2
8. Witch of Agnesi, x2y = a2(a – y), x = a tan t, find y. a/b a d
Simplifying the denominator of (7d) and applying =  we have
c/d b c
Solution:
8a 3 t 6
1  t 
2 2 2
6. (x – h) + (y – k) = r (6a) x = h + r cos t (6b)
2 3
8a 3 t 6 1 t2
2

1  t 
Substituting (6b) into (6a) and simplifying: y = = (7e)
2a 2 3 2a
(h + r cos t – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2  r2 cos2 t + (y – k)2 = r2 1 t2
(y – k)2 = r2 – r2 cos2 t  (y – k)2 = r2(1 – cos2 t) (6c)

33 34
Cancelling common factors in (7e) and applying anpbnqcnr = (apbqcr)n to its Solution:
numerator we have
9.. y2(x2 + y2) = a2x2 (9a) x = a cos t cot t, y = a cos t (9b)

y2 =
4a t2 6
2at  3 2
Substituting (9b) into (9a) and simplifying
1  t  1  t 
= (7f)
2 2 2 2
a2 cos2 t (a2 cos2 t cot2 t + a2 cos2 t) a2(a2 cos2 t cot2 t)

n cos2 t (cos2 t cot2 t + cos2 t) cos2 t cot2 t

a an
Finally, applying =   and extracting the square root of the resulting cos4 t (cot2 t + 1) cos2 t cot2 t
b n b
equation gives
cos2 t (cot2 t + 1) cot2 t cos2 t csc2 t cot2 t
2
 2at 3  2at 3 Using csc t = 1/sin t and cot t = cos t / sin t in (9b) gives
y2 =   or y= Answer.
1 t2  1 t2
  cos2 t ✔
cot2 t cot2 t ＝ cot2 t OK!
2
2 2 sin t
8. x y = a (a – y) (8a) x = a tan t (8b)
Solving for “y” in (8a) 3at 3at 2
10. x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0 (10a) x= and y= (10b)
x2y = a3 – a2y  x2y + a2y = a3 1 t3 1 t3
Plugging in (10b) into (10a) and simplifying
a3
y(x2 + a2) = a3  y = (8c)
x2  a2 3
 3at 2 
3
 3at 2 
 3at 
  +   – 3a  3at    0
Substituting (8b) to (8c) and simplifying 1 t 
3   1 t3 
1 t 
3
  1 t3   
a3 a3
y= = 27 a 3t 3 27 a 3t 6 27 a 3 t 3
–
1  t  1  t  1  t 
a 2 tan 2 t  a 2 a 2 (tan 2 t  1) + 0
3 3 3 3 3 2

a a
y= = = a cos2 t Answer.
(tan t  1)
2
sec t2 Multiplying (10c) by (1 + t3)3 and simplifying

since 1/sec t = cos t. 27a3t3 + 27a3t6 – 27a3t3(1 + t3) 0

✔
C. Prove that the given parametric equations satisfy the equation of the curve. 27a3t3 + 27a3t6 – 27a3t3 – 27a3t6 0 0 ＝0 OK!

9. Kappa Curve, y2(x2 + y2) = a2x2 x = a cos t cot t, y = a cos t

b. Converting Parametric Equations into Rectangular Equations. Parametric
3at 3at 2 equations can be converted into algebraic equation by eliminating the common
10. Folium of Descartes, x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0 x= , y= parameter t from the pair of equations. The resulting equation is a function of
1 t 3
1 t3 two variables x and y. This is diagramed in Figure 9 below.

35 36
 [x = t 2]1/2  t = x1/2  [y = t 3]1/3  t = y1/3
x = f(t) and y = g(t) y = f(x) or f(x, y) = c [y1/3 = x1/2]6  y2 = x3 (Cissoid) Answer.
Elimination of t
Parametric Equation Algebraic Equation 4. x = cos3 t (4a) y = sin3 t (4b)

Figure 9 – Parameterization of an Algebraic Equation Solving for cos t in (4a) and sin t in (4b)

Example 5 [cos3 t = x]1/3  cos t = x1/3 (4c) [sin3 t = y]1/3  sin t = y1/3 (4d)

A. Obtain the corresponding algebraic equation, identify and show the figure. Plugging in (4c) and (4d) into the equation and simplifying

1. x = 2t + 1, y = 2 – t 4. x = cos3 t, y = sin3 t cos2 t + sin2 t = 1  (x1/3) 2 + (y1/3) 2 = 1

t2  3 t2 3 x2/3 + y2/3 = 1 (Astroid) Answer.

2. x = t – 1, y = 16  t 5. x = , y= t
t 1
2
t 1
2

t2  3 t2 3
3. x = t 2, y = t 3 5. x = (5a) y= t (5b)
t2 1 t2 1
Solution:
Dividing (5b) by (5a) gives
1. x = 2t + 1 (1a) y=2–t (1b) y
t= (5c)
Solving for “t” in (1b), substituting to (1a) and simplifying x

t=2–y  x = 2(2 – y) + 1  x = 4 – 2y + 1 Simplifying (5a), substituting (5c) and simplifying

x + 2y = 5 (Straight line) Answer. x(t2 + 1) = t2 – 3 (5d)

 y  2   y  2  y2  y2
2. x = t –1 (2a) y= 16  t (2b) x    1 =   – 3  x  1 = –3
 x    x   x2  x2
 
Expressing (2a) and (2b) ITO “t”

t = x+1  t = (x + 1)2  t = x2 + 2x + 1 (2c) 

x y2  x2 = y 2  3x 2
 xy2 + x3 = y2 – 3x2  y2 – xy2 = x3 + 3x2
2 2
x x
y= 16  t  y2 = 16 – t  t = 16 – y2 (2d) 2 2
y (1 – x) = x (3 + x) (Trisectrix of Maclauren) Answer.
Equating (2c) and (2d) and simplifying
B. Eliminate the parameter and find the standard equation of the curve. Name
x2 + 2x + 1 = 16 – y2  x2 + y2 + 2x = 15 (Circle) Answer. the curve and find its center/vertex.

3. x = t 2, y = t 3 (3a) 6. x = 5 sec t, y = 2 + 3 tan t 9. x = 2 + sin t ; y = –2 + 3 cos t

Eliminating “t” in (3a) and simplifying the resulting equation 7. x = t – 2, y = (t + 1)2 10. x = –1 + 2 cot t; y = 3 + 4 csc t

37 38
 8. x = 3 + 2 cos t ; y = 2 sin t (x – 3)2 + (y – 0)2 = 4 Circle with center at (3, 0) Answer.
.
Solution: 9. x = 2 + sin t y = –2 + 3 cos t (9a)

6. x = 5 sec t; y = 2 + 3 tan t (6a) Expressing (9a) ITO “cos t” and “sin t”, respectively
y2
Expressing (6a) ITO “sec t” and “tan t”, respectively sin t = (x – 2) cos t = (9b)
3
x y2 Substitute (9b) to the trigonometric identity
sec t = tan t = (6b)
5 3 2
 y  2
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 (x – 2)2 +   =1 (9c)
Substitute (6b) to the trigonometric identity  3 
2 2
x  y 2 Simplifying (9c)
sec2 t – tan2 t = 1    –   =1
5  3 
 x  2 2 +
 y  2 2 =1 Ellipse with center at (2, –2) Answer.
x  02 –
 y  2 2 = 1 Hyperbola with center at (0, 2) Answer.
1 9
25 9
10. x = –1 + 2 cot t (10a) y = 3 + 4 csc t (10b)
.
7. x = t – 2 (7a) y = (t + 1)2 (7b) Expressing (1a) and (10b) ITO “cot t” and “csc t”, respectively

Rewriting (7a) and substituting to (7b) x 1 y 3

cot t =  csc t = (10c)
2 2 2 4
t=x–2  y = (x – 2 + 1)  y = (x – 1)
Substitute (10c) to the trigonometric identity
(x – 1)2 = (y – 0) Parabola with vertex at (0, 1), opens up. Answer.
2 2
 y 3  x 1
csc2 t – cot2 t = 1    –   =1
8. x = 3 + 2 cos t (8a) y = 2 sin t (8b)  4   2 

Expressing (8a) and (8b) ITO “cos t” and “sin t”, respectively  y  3 2 +
x  12 =1 Hyperbola with center at (1, 3) Answer.
x3 y 16 4
cos t = (8c) sin t = (8d)
2 2
c. Converting Polar Equations into Parametric Equations. Polar equations
Substitute (8c) and (8d)to the trigonometric identity
can be converted to parametric equations using Eq. (21) and letting  = t, thus
2 2
 y  x 3 x = r cos  (13) y = r sin  (14)
sin2 t + cos2 t = 1    +   =1 (8e)
2  2 
Letting  = t, these becomes
Simplifying (8e) gives x = r cos t (23) y = r sin t (24)
y2
+
x  32 = 1 Suggested Procedure
4 4

39 40
 Step 1. Replace all  with t.  x = 2 cos2 t , y = sin 2t Answer.
Step 2. Apply Eqs. (23) and (24) 6
3. r =
Step 3. Simplify. 2 cos  3 sin 

Example 6 Step 1. Replace all  with t.

6
Convert the following into parametric equations. r=
2 cost  3 sin t
6
1. r = 2 + 1 3. r = 5. r = 2 tan  sin  Step 2. Apply Eqs. (23) and (24)
2 cos  3 sin 
6 cos t 6 sin t
2. r = 2 cos  4. r = csc  (cot  + 2) 6. r = 4 sec2  x = r cos t = y = r sin t = Answer.
2 cos t  3 sin t 2 cos t  3 sin t
Solution:
Step 3. (No need)
1. r = 2 + 1
Note: We will now solve the remaining items straightforwardly.
Step 1. Replace all  with t.
4. r = csc  (cot  + 2)
r = 2t + 1
r = csc t (cot t + 2)
Step 2. Apply Eqs. (23) and (24)
x = r cos t = csc t (cot t + 2) cos t  x = cot t (cot t + 2)
x = r cos t y = r sin t
y = r sin t = csc t (cot t + 2) sin t  y = cot t + 2
x = (2t + 1) cos t y = (2t + 1) sin t
 x = cot t (cot t + 2),  y = cot t + 2 Answer.
Step 3. Simplify. (No need)
 x = (2t + 1) cos t , y = (2t + 1) sin t Answer. 5. r = 2 tan  sin 
r = 2 tan t sin t
2. r = 2 cos 
x = r cos t = 2 tan t sin t cos t = 2 sin2 t
Step 1. Replace all  with t.
y = r sin t = 2 tan t sin t sin t = 2 sin2 t tan t
r = 2 cos t
 x = 2 sin2 t,  y = 2 sin2 t tan t Answer.
Step 2. Apply Eqs. (23) and (24)
x = r cos t y = r sin t 6. r = 4 sec2   r = 4 sec2 t
x = 2 cos t cos t y = 2 cos t sin t x = r cos t = 4 sec2 t cos t = 4 sec t
Step 3. Simplify. y = r sin t = 4 sec2 t sin t = 4 tan t sec t
x = 2 cos t cos t = 2 cos2 t  y = 2 cos t sin t = sin 2t  x = 4 sec t,  y = 4 tan t sec t Answer.

41 42
d. Converting Parametric Polar Equations into Polar Equations. Parametric 2. x = 2(1 – cos t), y = 3 + 2 sin t
equations in polar form may be converted into polar equations by changing the
parameter t into  and using Eq. (25), thus Step 1. Replace t with .

r2 = x2 + y2 (25) x = 2(1 – cos ) = 2 – 2cos  y = 3 + 2 sin 

Step 2. Apply Eq. (25)
Suggested Procedure:
r2 = x2 + y2 r2 = (2 – 2 cos )2 + (3 + 2 sin )2
Step 1. Replace t with  in the given equations.
Step 3. Simplify.
Step 2. Apply Eq. (25)
r2 = 4 – 8 cos  + cos2  + 9 + 12 sin  + 4 sin2 
Step 3. Simplify.
But: cos2  = 1 – sin2 
Example 7
r2 = 4 – 8 cos  + (1 – sin2 ) + 9 + 12 sin  + 4 sin2 
1. x = 2 – r cos t; y = r sin t 4. x = t cot t, y = t r2 = 3 sin2  + 12 sin  – 8 cos  + 14 Answer.
2. x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t 5. x = 4 sec t , y = 4 tan t sec t
We will now solve Items 3 to 5 without mentioning the steps.
3. x = 2 sec t, y = 3 tan t
3. x = 2 sec t, y = 2 – 3 tan t
Solution: x = 2 sec , y = 2 – 3 tan 

1. x = 2 – r cos t; y = r sin t
2 2
r =x +y 2
r2 = (2 sec )2 + (2 – 3 tan )2

Step 1. Replace t with . r2 = 4 sec2  + 4 – 12 tan  + 9 tan2 

x = 2 – r cos  y = r sin  Using sec2  = 1 + tan2  and simplifying

Step 2. Apply Eq. (25). r2 = 4(1 + tan2) + 4 – 12 tan  + 9 tan2 

r2 = x2 + y2 r2 = (2 – r cos )2 + (r sin )2 r2 = 4 + 4 tan2  + 4 – 12 tan  + 9 tan2 

r2 = 13 tan2  – 12 tan  + 8 Answer.
Step 3. Simplify.
r2 = 4 – 4r cos  + r2 cos2  + r2 sin2  4. x = t cot t, y = t  x =  cot , y=
r2 = 4 – 4r cos  + r2 (cos2  + sin2 ) r2 = x2 + y2  r2 = 2 cot2  + 2
But: cos2  + sin2  = 1 r2 = 2 (cot2  + 1)  r2 = 2 csc2 
r2 = 4 – 4r cos  + r2 (1) r2 = ( csc )2  r =  csc  Answer.
4r cos  = 4  r cos  = 1
5. x = 4 sec t, y = 4 tan t sec t
r = 1/cos   r = sec  Answer.
x = 4 sec , y = 4 tan  sec 
43 44
 r2 = x2 + y2 = 16 sec2  + 16 tan2  sec2  Based on Figure 14, we can establish the following equations:
r = 16 sec  (1 + tan  )
2 2 2
x = r cos  y = r sin  z=z (13, 14, 26)
But: 1 + tan  = sec 
2 2
cos  = x / r sin  = y / r (15, 16)
r = 16 sec  sec 
2 2 2
 r = 16 sec 
2 4

r2 = x2 + y2 r= x2  y2 (25, 20)
r = (4 sec )
2 2 2
 r = 4 sec  2
Answer.
tan  = y/x  = arctan (y/x) (17, 18)
3. Relationship Between Rectangular Coordinate System and Cylindrical
where:
Coordinate System. The Cylindrical Coordinate System is a special type of
coordinate system based on right cylinder oriented on the origin of the Spatial x = distance from 0 to Q along the x-axis
Cartesian Coordinate System as shown in Figure 2.5. To formulate relationship
between the two coordinate systems, we will put P( x, y, z), a point in the y = distance from 0 to Q along the y-axis
rectangular coordinate system and P(r, , z) a point in the cylindrical coordinate z = distance from 0 to Q along the zaxis
system at one location on the surface of the cylinder (see Figure 10) and
establish their relationship using Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry. r = radius of the cylinder measured in the xy-plane (r > 0)
 = angle from the + x-axis to 0Q measured in a
z counter clockwise direction (0    2)
a. Converting points in rectangular coordinate system into cylindrical
coordinate system. Points in RCCS may be converted into CCS using Eqs.
r (25) and (55).
P(x, y, z) Example 8
P(r, , z)
z , z) Convert the following points into cylindrical coordinates:
z
1. A(1, 2, 3) 3. C(3, –1, 2) 5. Q(–4, –3,5)
0 y y
2. B(2, 3, –3) 4. P(–3, 4, –3)
x r
 x
y Q Solution:
x
Note: To save space, we will just solve the problems directly using Eqs. (25)
and (27), noting that z is the same in both SCCS and CCS.

1. A(1, 2, 3)  x = 1, y=2 and z = 3.

r= 12  2 2 = 2.24  = arctan (2/1) = 63.43

Figure 10 – Relationship between the SCCS and the CCS
 A(1, 2, 3)  A(2.24, 63.43, 3) Answer.

45 46
 2. xy – yz = xz
2. B(2, 3, –3)  x = 2, y=3 and z = –3.
Using (13), (14) and (26) and simplifying:
r= 2 2  32 = 3.61  = arctan (3/2) = 56.31 (r cos )(r sin ) = z(r cos ) = 0  r sin  cos  – z sin  = z cos 

 B(2, 3, –3)  A(3.61, 56.31, –3) Answer. r sin  cos  – z sin  = z cos   ½ r sin 2 = z(sin  + cos )

3. C(3, –1, 2)  y = –1 2 z (sin   cos )

x = 3, and z = 2. r sin 2 = 2z (sin  + cos )  r=
sin 2
r= 32  (1) 2 = 10 = 3.16  = arctan (–1/3) = 341.47 r = 2 z sin 2 (sin   cos ) Answer.

 C(3, –1, 2)  A(3.16,341.47, 2) Answer. 3. x2(z2 + y2) = z2

4. P(–3, 4, –2)  x = –3, y=4 and z = –2. Using (13), (14) and (26) and simplifying:
(r2 cos2 ) (z2 + r2 sin2 ) = z2  r2 z2 cos2  + r4 sin2  cos2  = z2
2 2
r= (3)  4 =5  = arctan (4/–3) = 306.84
z2 cos2  + r2 sin2  cos2  = z2  r2 sin2  cos2  = z2(1 – cos2 z)
 P(–3, 4, –2)  A(5, 306.84, –2) Answer.
r2 sin2  cos2  = z2 sin2   r2 cos2  = z2  r cos  = z
z
5. Q(–4, –3,5)  x = –4, y = –3 and z = 5. r= = z sec  Answer.
cos
r= (4) 2  (2) 2 = 4.47  = arctan (–3/–4) = 1.30 rad
4. x2(x2 + y2) = z2(x2 – y2)
 Q(–4, –3,5)  A(4.47, 1.30 rad, 5) Answer. Using (13), (14) and (26) and simplifying:
(r2 cos2 )(r2 cos2  + r2 sin2 ) = z2(r2 cos2  – r2 sin2 )
b. Converting Equations in Spatial Cartesian Coordinate System into
Cylindrical Coordinate System. To convert equations in SCCS into CCS, we (r2 cos2 )(cos2  + sin2 ) = z2(cos2  – sin2 )
will just use Eqs. (13), (14) and (26).
r2 cos2  = z2(cos2  – sin2 )  r2 cos2  = z2[cos2  – (1 – cos2 )]
Example 9
z 2 (2 cos2   1)
r2 cos2  = z2(2 cos2  – 1)  r2 =
Convert the following equations into cylindrical coordinates: cos2 
1. x2 + y2 = 1 3. x2(1 – y2) = z2 5. y2 + z2 = 4 r2 = z2(2 – sec2 ) Answer.
2. xy + yz = xz – 1 4. z = 9
5. y2 + z2 = 4  (r sin )2 + z2 = 4
Solution Using (13), (14) and (26) and simplifying:
1. x2 + y2 + z2 =  r2 sin2  + z2 = 4 Answer.
Using (13), (14) and (26) gives r +z =
2 2
Answer.

47 48
3. Relationship Between Spatial Cartesian Coordinate System and
Spherical Coordinate System. The relationship between SCCS and SCS is
shown in Figure 11.  = angle from the +z-axis to OP measured in a clockwise direction
= complement of the latitude of P
z
a. Converting points in rectangular coordinate system into cylindrical
coordinate system. Points and equations in the RCCS may be converted into
T SCS using Eqs. (56) and (61), whichever is applicable.
P(x, y, z) a.
z P(, , ) Example 10
  , z)
y z Convert the following equations into spherical forms.
0 S
x y 1. x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 3. x2(1 – y2) = z2 5. y2 + z2 = 4
Q   x
y 2. xy + z2 = 1 4. z = 4
R
x
Solution

1. x2 + y2 = 9

Figure 11 – Relationship between the SCCS and SCS Substituting (26) and (27), and simplifying:
( cos  sin  )2 + ( sin  sin )2 = 9
Based on Figure 15, we can establish the following equations:
2 cos2  sin2  + 2 sin2  sin2  = 9
x =  cos  sin  (26) tan  = y/x (30)
2 sin2  (cos2  + sin2  ) = 9
y =  sin  sin  (27)  = arctan (y/x) (31)
2 sin2  (1) = 9   sin  = 3 Answer.
z =  cos  (28) cos  = z/ (32)

= x2  y 2  z 2 (29)  = arccos (z/) (33) 2. xy + z2 = 1

Substituting (26), (27) and (28) and simplifying:
where:
( cos  sin  )( sin  sin ) + ( cos )2 = 1
x = distance 0Q or 0 to P along the x-axis
y = distance 0S or 0 to S along the y-axis
2 sin2  cos  sin  + 2 cos2  = 1

z = distance 0T or 0 to P along the z-axis 2 (sin2  cos  sin  + cos2  ) = 1 Answer.

 = radius of the sphere 0R = 0P; ( > 0)

3. y2 + z2 = 4
 = angle from the +x-axis to 0R measured in a
Substituting (27) and (28) and simplifying:
counter clockwise direction (0    2) = longitude from P

49 50
 ( cos  sin  )2 + ( cos )2 = 4  2 cos2  sin2  + 2 cos2  = 4
2 (cos2  sin2  + cos2  ) = 4 Answer.

4. x2 + y2 + z2 = 9
Substituting (26), (27) and (28) and simplifying:
( cos  sin  )2 + ( sin  sin )2 + ( cos )2 = 9
2 cos2  sin2  + 2 sin2  sin2  + 2 cos2  = 9
2 cos2  sin2  + 2 sin2  sin2  + 2 cos2  = 9
2 sin2  (cos2  + sin2  ) + 2 cos2  = 9
2 sin2  (1) + 2 cos2  = 9  2 (sin2  + cos2  ) = 9
2 (1 ) = 9   = 3 Answer.

5. x2(1 + z2) + y2 = 2
Substituting (26), (27) and (28) and simplifying:
( cos  sin )2[1 + ( cos )2 + ( sin  sin )2 = 2
2 cos2  sin2  [1 + 2 cos2 ] + 2 sin2  sin2  = 2
cos2  [1 + 2 cos2 ] + sin2  = 2
cos2  + 2 cos2  cos2  + sin2  = 2
2 cos2  cos2  + sin2  + cos2  = 2
2 cos2  cos2  + 1 = 2
2 cos2  cos2  = 1 Answer.

51
 F.1 The Study of Calculus

Calculus is divided into five major branches namely: Differential Calculus;

Integral Calculus; Differential Equations; Calculus of Variations; and Calculus of
Errors. (The last two branches are usually covered in specialized courses and
are beyond the scope of our discussion.
At this point in time, and before climbing to the next steps towards our course,
your Sir Anacta would like to remind you that the first two branches of calculus
mentioned above (the Differential and the Integral Calculus) are the exact
content of Differential Equations. They are (together with Algebra, Trigonometry,
Analytic, Plane and Solid Geometry) pre-requisites to Differential Equations.
Hence, your Sir Anacta will be relying on your mastery and expertise on the
above courses.
Recall that these two branches of calculus are reversible in process. This is
shown in Figure 1.

Differentiation
Function or Derivative or
Equation Differential
Integration

Figure 1 – The Process of Calculus

The left side box in Fig. 1 contains the function or equation while the right side
box contains its derivative or differential. Think of these two boxes as two distinct
places: the function box as an origin and the derivative box as a destination. The
opposing middle arrows are the respective routes towards these places which
corresponds to the two processes of calculus: the Differential Calculus
(rightward arrow) and Integral Calculus (leftward arrow). Think of going to ESSU
and going back home. These are analogous to the two processes of calculus.

Remember This
 If we assign a value of c = 3 (Note that an arbitrary constant can take any value
except zero), then we will just return to (1-a) which is the given function.
In getting the derivative or differential of a function or equation, we use the
process of differentiation; and in going back to the function or equation, we use Illustration 2
the process of integration or anti-differentiation.
Consider the implicit function
Illustration 1 x2 + 2y2 – 3x + y – 10 = 0 (2-a)
Differentiating (2-a), we have
1. The process of differentiation.
: 2x dx + 4y dy – 3dx + dy = 0
Consider the function
or (2x – 3) dx + (4y + 1) dy = 0 (2-b)
y = f(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 (1-a)
from which we can obtain
Differentiating (1-a), we have
dy
y’ = f’(x) = 2x + 3 (1-b) (4y + 1) + 2x – 3 = 0 (2-c)
dx
dy
or = 2x + 3 (1-c) or (4y + 1)y’ + 2x – 3 = 0 (2-d)
dx
This means that we were able to derive (2-b) and subsequently (2-c) and (2-d)
Eq. (1-c) can also be written in its differential form as by differentiation. Note that (2-a), (2-b) and 2-c) are one and the same.
dy = (2x + 3) dx
2. The process of integration.
or (2x + 3) dx – dy = 0 (1-d) :
Now, we will go back to where we belong. We will start with integrating (2-b),
This means that from the function (1-a), we can obtain its derivative (1-b) or (1-c) applying procedure similar Illustration 1, we have
and, subsequently, its differential (1-d) through the process of differentiation.
Now, we will proceed with the backward route. Starting with (1-d)  2 x  3dx +  4 y  1dy =0 (2-b’)

(2x + 3) dx – dy = 0 (1-d) 2x 2 4y2

– 3x + +y=c
or dy = (2x + 3) dx (1-e) 2 2
x2 + 2y2 – 3x + y = c (2-e)
2. The process of integration.
: Letting c = 10 in (2-e) we will have an equation similar to (2-a).
Integrating (1-e) and simplifying gives
Very Important: You need to be “friendly” with Eqs. (1-b), (1-c), (1-d), and (2-b),
 dy =  2 x  3 dx (2-c) and (2-d) because they will be your constant companions throughout the
duration of this course. They are, in fact, differential equations!
y = x2 + 3x + c (1-f)
where c = arbitrary constant.
Observe that Eqs. (1-a) and (1-f) as well as (2-a) and (2-e) actually differ by a dealing with derivative of one dependent variable ITO one independent variable.
constant. The sooner has numerical (or fixed) constant “2” and “-10” (Later in this module, we will be dealing with partial derivatives which is the
respectiveky, while the later contains an arbitrary constant “c”. derivative of functions with two independent variables.

In calculus, these two constants are treated similarly because their derivatives Graphically, (3) and (4) represents the slope of the tangent line at a certain point
are both zero. Thus, we can actually conclude that (1-a) and (1-f) as well as (2- in a curve. This is shown in Figure 2.
a) and (2-e) are one and the same functions as far as the two processes of
calculus are concerned. But as we go on with our discussion on the types of Evaluating the derivatives of functions and equations with two variables may be
solution of differential equations, their difference become dominant because implemented by the derivative method or the differential method using the
arbitrary constants are used in the their general solution (GS), while fixed of derivative formulas directly or indirectly. This will be our next discussion.
numerical constants will appear in their particular solution (PS).
Types of Constants:
13 y y’, dy/dx or f’(x, y)
1. Fixed or numerical constants. These are constants with specific values
(e.g., 0, 1, -3, , e, tan 30, ln 3, 7 , etc.). P(x, y)
y y = f(x) or
2. Arbitrary constants. These are constants which can take or can be
f(x, y) = c
assigned with any value except zero.
Curve
b
Note: In our course we will use the symbols by a, b, c, ½a, e , ln c, sin 2a, etc. for
arbitrary constants. 0 x x

F.1.1 Differentiation of Functions and Equations

Figure 2 – Graphical Interpretation of Ordinary Derivative
with Two Variables
Example 1
In Section F.2.9 of our first module, we talked about the two types of
expressing functions and equations with two variables (i.e., one DV and one IV).
These are
y = f(x) (1)
and f(x, y) = c (2)
The first one is the explicit form while the second one is the implicit form. In
getting their derivatives, these two equations become
y’ = f’(x) (3)

and f’(x, y) = 0 (4)

where (’) is a derivative symbol. Eqs. (3) and (4) are the first derivative of (1)
and (2). (Later on we will discuss higher derivatives and partial derivatives.)
They are also called ordinary derivative or exact derivative because we are