Łukasz Kowalski
Nicolaus Copernicus University, Institute of Archaeology, Faculty Member
- Archaeometry, Prehistoric Archaeology, Chemistry & Chemometrics, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Bronze Age of the Carpathian Basin, Social Stratification, and 43 moreJournal of Archaeological Science, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Archaeological Method & Theory, Archaeological Science, Ceramic Analysis (Archaeology), Archaeological Chemistry, Social Archaeology, Prehistoric Routes, The archaeology of state formation, Unetice culture, Eneolithic in Central Europe, Еarliest daggers in Europe, Bronze Age Metalwork, Bronze Age metal hoards, Archaeology, Trade, Exchange, Pottery, Metallurgy, 3rd Millennium BC, Mediterranean, Baden culture, Balkans, Nordic Bronze Age, Development of complex societies, History of Archaeology, Iwno Culture, Eneolithic, Funnel Beaker Culture, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Early Bronze Age, Neolithic & Chalcolithic Archaeology, Chalcolithic Archaeology, Archaeometallurgy, Non Destructive Testing, Lusatian Culture, Copper Alloys, Scythians, Early Iron Age, Neolithic Archaeology, Copper metallurgy, Copper age, Copper, and Urnfield Cultureedit
This dataset compiles radiocarbon dates received for botanical macroremains and animal bones from domestic and ritual pits and human graves unearthed during excavations at the archaeological site of Kałdus (Poland) that can be related to... more
This dataset compiles radiocarbon dates received for botanical macroremains and animal bones from domestic and ritual pits and human graves unearthed during excavations at the archaeological site of Kałdus (Poland) that can be related to the Funnel Beaker culture (TRB). Prior to radiocarbon dating by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), plant macroremains were checked against diagnostic attributes of species identification by standard paleobotanical analysis. The dataset contains already published (n = 4) and new (n = 10) radiocarbon dates that were used to establish the absolute chronology of the TRB habitus at Kałdus and its diachronic spatial organization. This dataset serves as an archive for future studies focusing on the TRB settlement pattern and organization in the region of modern Poland. It also has a utility to be reused in archaeological and chronological research on the movement of copper metalwork and the gradual spread of human cremation rite in the region.
Research Interests:
In the mid-1990s, a copper dagger of the Cucuteni-Vădastra type was found in the Lublin-Volhynian culture cemetery at Strzyżów, south-eastern Poland. The dagger was customized as a pendant and deposited in an inhumation burial that... more
In the mid-1990s, a copper dagger of the Cucuteni-Vădastra type was found in the Lublin-Volhynian culture cemetery at
Strzyżów, south-eastern Poland. The dagger was customized as a pendant and deposited in an inhumation burial that contained
the remains of an adult male and over ten other grave offerings dating to the 2nd quarter of the 4th millennium BC.
This paper presents the results of archaeological and metallographic examinations of the dagger from Strzyżów and relates
them to a wider cultural context of the region. The results of our study show that the dagger has no signs of use-wear, and
furthermore indicate that the metal used for its production is fahlore copper which could have been sourced from the Slovak
Ore Mountains. The two other Cucuteni-Vădastra type daggers that were discovered in the vicinity of Strzyżów mark
the Western Volhynian Upland as a distinct cluster of the Cucuteni-Vădastra dagger industry in Europe. Furthermore, the
daggers from Poland evidence a close relationship between the Lublin-Volhynian culture and the Cucuteni-Tripillia complex
and attest to the intercultural landscape of the Eastern Carpathians region during the Eneolithic.
Strzyżów, south-eastern Poland. The dagger was customized as a pendant and deposited in an inhumation burial that contained
the remains of an adult male and over ten other grave offerings dating to the 2nd quarter of the 4th millennium BC.
This paper presents the results of archaeological and metallographic examinations of the dagger from Strzyżów and relates
them to a wider cultural context of the region. The results of our study show that the dagger has no signs of use-wear, and
furthermore indicate that the metal used for its production is fahlore copper which could have been sourced from the Slovak
Ore Mountains. The two other Cucuteni-Vădastra type daggers that were discovered in the vicinity of Strzyżów mark
the Western Volhynian Upland as a distinct cluster of the Cucuteni-Vădastra dagger industry in Europe. Furthermore, the
daggers from Poland evidence a close relationship between the Lublin-Volhynian culture and the Cucuteni-Tripillia complex
and attest to the intercultural landscape of the Eastern Carpathians region during the Eneolithic.
Research Interests:
In autumn 2020, a group of metal detectorists located 150 bronze artefacts on a forested dune near the village of Cierpice in north-central Poland. The hoard includes cheekpieces, phalerae, rattle and terret rings, and rein cuffs with... more
In autumn 2020, a group of metal detectorists
located 150 bronze artefacts on a forested dune near
the village of Cierpice in north-central Poland. The hoard
includes cheekpieces, phalerae, rattle and terret rings, and
rein cuffs with wire links that had once formed parts of a
horse bridle dating back to the Final Bronze Age. The bridle
equipment was wrapped together with a socketed axe in a plant fibres packing and then carefully placed in an organic
bag that had decayed. This article presents and discusses
the results of archaeological, metallographic and paleobotanical
examinations of the hoard, aided by other data
documented archaeologically, and relates them to patterns
of metalwork movement and consumption in the region
of modern Poland during the Lusatian era and the wider
context of the North European Bronze Age.
located 150 bronze artefacts on a forested dune near
the village of Cierpice in north-central Poland. The hoard
includes cheekpieces, phalerae, rattle and terret rings, and
rein cuffs with wire links that had once formed parts of a
horse bridle dating back to the Final Bronze Age. The bridle
equipment was wrapped together with a socketed axe in a plant fibres packing and then carefully placed in an organic
bag that had decayed. This article presents and discusses
the results of archaeological, metallographic and paleobotanical
examinations of the hoard, aided by other data
documented archaeologically, and relates them to patterns
of metalwork movement and consumption in the region
of modern Poland during the Lusatian era and the wider
context of the North European Bronze Age.
Research Interests:
The archaeological site of Ryńsk in north-central Poland produced sound evidence of long-distance journeys of people and pottery from the 6th millennium BC in Central Europe by yielding a sophisticated ceramic footed bowl that can be... more
The archaeological site of Ryńsk in north-central Poland produced sound evidence of long-distance journeys of people and pottery from the 6th millennium BC in Central Europe by yielding a sophisticated ceramic footed bowl that can be traced to the Carpathian Basin region. Archaeology indicates that the earliest ceramic vessels had a different functional, social and ritual role, but it is difficult to convey information on the significant role of pottery in ancient societies in a way that would pique the interest of the general public. This paper presents the digital restoration and 3D visualisation of the footed bowl from Ryńsk and other accompanying ceramics that may assist in feeding the historical imagination and education about the ancient pottery making of the LBK people and can be used to provide a wider audience with new forms of engagement and interaction with the archaeological heritage of the region.
Research Interests:
In 2023, prospection of a dried-out lake near Papowo Biskupie in north-central Poland identified substantial deposits of bronze artefacts. Excavation revealed further deposits and dozens of human skeletons that date from 1000-400 BC,... more
In 2023, prospection of a dried-out lake near Papowo Biskupie in north-central Poland identified substantial deposits of bronze artefacts. Excavation revealed further deposits and dozens of human skeletons that date from 1000-400 BC, suggesting that the site held particular significance as a place for sacrificial offerings in the Lusatian culture.
Research Interests:
Chemical and lead isotope analyses aided by metallographic examination of copper axes found at the Late Neolithic settlement of Kietrz in southwestern Poland provide new evidence for the origin of copper and metal trade routes in the... more
Chemical and lead isotope analyses aided by metallographic examination of copper axes found at the Late Neolithic settlement of Kietrz in southwestern Poland provide new evidence for the origin of copper and metal trade routes in the region. Our results indicate that metal used for the axes could be sourced from copper mines in modern Slovakia, Bulgaria and perhaps Serbia. The evidence from this study confirms that the Funnel Beaker people from Poland became parties to a metal trading network that connected much of continental Europe in the mid-4th millennium BCE and provides a better understanding of how these contacts provided the background for the technological and socioeconomic developments of the Baden era.
Research Interests:
In 2018, excavations at Markowice in central Poland produced sound evidence for the uptake of the Baden Culture in the region: the remains of a young male interred with two cattle drawing a funerary sledge were unearthed, along with... more
In 2018, excavations at Markowice in central Poland produced sound evidence for the uptake of the Baden Culture in the region: the remains of a young male interred with two cattle drawing a funerary sledge were unearthed, along with several other Funnel Beaker (TRB) inhumations that date to 3500–3100 BC.
Research Interests:
The detection of dairy processing is pivotal to our understanding of ancient subsistence strategies. This culinary process is linked to key arguments surrounding the evolution of lactase persistence in prehistory. Despite extensive... more
The detection of dairy processing is pivotal to our understanding of ancient subsistence strategies. This culinary process is linked to key arguments surrounding the evolution of lactase persistence in prehistory. Despite extensive evidence indicating the presence of dairy products in ceramics in the European Neolithic, questions remain about the nature and extent of milk (and lactose) processing and consumption. In order to investigate past patterns of dairy processing, here we analyse ancient proteins identified from Late Neolithic Funnel Beaker ceramics, scrutinizing the principle that curd and whey proteins partition during the production of dairy foods from milk. Our results indicate the presence of casein-rich dairy products in these vessels suggesting the creation of curd-enriched products from raw milk. Moreover, this analysis reveals the use of multiple species for their dairy products in the Late Neolithic, adding to a growing body of evidence for the period. Alongside palaeoproteomic analysis, we applied well-established lipid residue analysis. Differential interpretations between these two approaches show that palaeoproteomics is especially useful where the effects from isotope mixing may underestimate the frequency of dairy products in archaeological ceramics, highlighting the potential utility of a multi-stranded approach to understand life histories of vessel use.
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This paper reports on archived archaeological material and some recent discoveries of stray finds from north-central Poland that can be dated to the Early Bronze Age, mostly from the site of Lachmirowice in the Kuyavia region, including... more
This paper reports on archived archaeological material and some recent discoveries of stray finds from north-central Poland that can be dated to the Early Bronze Age, mostly from the site of Lachmirowice in the Kuyavia region, including ceramic vessels and a stone tool identified as an arrow shaft straightener. The other objects analysed are two clay tuyeres from Chełmno land (Culm) and three bronze daggers from the region of Greater Poland and Mazovia, which can be connected to the Úněticean metal industry. To improve the quality of the information on the artefacts, we determined their chemistry and technology and combined this with the stylistic and technological trajectories of the era. The results obtained add information about the beginnings of the Bronze Age in northern Poland and help to better understand how the local post- neolithic communities in this region were being integrated within the Bell Beaker and Úněticean milieu.
Research Interests:
Throughout the long history of the Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture in the region of modern Poland (4100–3100 BCE) we can observe how local farming communities interacted with the wild world and how deer species became an important ideological... more
Throughout the long history of the Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture in the region of modern Poland (4100–3100 BCE) we can observe how local farming communities interacted with the wild world and how deer species became an important ideological resource for the TRB people. Biomolecular and histomorphometric evidence from two archaeological sites in central Poland add new information for a better understanding of these multilayered interactions. Our findings fuel a discussion of deer valorisation during the TRB era in Poland, showing that the dagger from Sławęcinek was made from the bone of a red deer or elk and may have served as a clan accessory. Furthermore, the results indicate that a likely candidate for the bone used to temper the ceramic vessel from Kałdus is red deer, which allowed us to speculate that the utilisation of bone-tempered pottery by the local TRB farmers may possibly reflect the magical domestication of cervids.
Research Interests:
The Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age metal hoards from the Chełmno land: A new insight into the metalworking capacity of the local bronzesmiths. In this paper we explore the metalworking capacity of the Chełmno group bronzesmiths by... more
The Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age metal hoards from the Chełmno land: A new insight into the metalworking capacity of the local bronzesmiths. In this paper we explore the metalworking capacity of the Chełmno group bronzesmiths by having a close look at metal hoards deposited in the area of the Vistula–Drwęca–Osa interfluve in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (1100–450 BC). Here, it appears plausible that the Chełmno group craftsmen did establish the local metalworking. However, they did not develop their own local style but were rather focused on imitating a foreign metalwork. Notwithstanding that, the Chełmno group bronzesmiths made themselves capable of multiplying metal weapon and tools in shell-moulds and were thoroughly familiar with the lost-wax technique. This opens the possibility that at least part of the metalwork hoarded in the Chełmno land was made on the spot.
Research Interests:
In 2009, an exceptional discovery was made in west-central Poland. At the Late Bronze Age necropolis in Wartosław, tools used in metalworking were unearthed from a mass grave belonging to the Lusatian people that can be dated to 1100-900... more
In 2009, an exceptional discovery was made in west-central Poland. At the Late Bronze Age necropolis in Wartosław, tools used in metalworking were unearthed from a mass grave belonging to the Lusatian people that can be dated to 1100-900 BCE. Twelve out of over 70 ceramic vessels from the burial pit were identified as urns that contained the ashes of at least eight deceased individuals, including two adult men, one young woman, one unspecified adult, and at least four children. Metallographic, chemical, and petrographic investigations of mortuary goods were used to determine their provenance and use in metalworking. The results of these investigations were used as a proxy to analyze the mass grave according to the ritual and social strategies of the era, including the status and organization of Lusatian metalworkers, and to consider the possibility of identifying their burials in the archeological record.
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At the beginning of 750 BC, the Urnfield world-system was about to collapse, bringing about many serious cultural changes in the region of Central Europe along with the atomization of local Lusatian communities from the territory that is... more
At the beginning of 750 BC, the Urnfield world-system was about to collapse, bringing about many serious cultural changes in the region of Central Europe along with the atomization of local Lusatian communities from the territory that is today northern Poland. It was a time of growing social and political competition between the Lusatian power elites, which took different forms, including more or less open struggle for influence in the metal trading network. In this paper, we provide new chemical (using ED XRF and SEM-EDS) and technological (using mCT, X-ray, OM and SEM-EDS) data for the bronze anklet and three phalerae which were hoarded in present-day Lipienek, northern Poland, between 600 and 450 BC, to combine it further with patterns of metalwork production and consumption in the region. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to present how the metal trading influenced cultural interactions between the Lusatian peoples from the Chełmno land and the nearby Kuyavia region, and how the Chełmno group responded to the dynamic and interconnected landscape of Early Iron Age Poland. Through exploring the metal artefacts from Lipienek, we also contribute to a better understanding of the bricoleur style in the Lusatian metalworking. Here, it appears that this technological trajectory might have resulted from the pragmatism of metalworkers who searched for a way to keep pace with the social and technological competition during the Lusatian era. Furthermore, the results have allowed us to hypothesise that the bricoleur style behind the hoard can also reflect the alienation of Chełmno group metalworkers and their patrons from the mainstream metal trading network, which was controlled by the Stanomin centre in the nearby Kuyavia region.
Research Interests:
This work reports the results of an interdisciplinary study seeking to address the issue of bone tempering in the Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture from the territory that is today Poland. In this paper we contribute to this debate by closely... more
This work reports the results of an interdisciplinary study seeking to address the issue of bone tempering in the
Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture from the territory that is today Poland. In this paper we contribute to this debate by
closely examining the geochemical characteristics (using INAA, ICP-MS, SEM-EDS, γ-ray spectrometry and OM)
of six ceramic vessels collected from the archaeological site in Kałdus, northern Poland. Particular emphasis is
placed on the need to clarify whether the bones in the pottery from Kałdus were deliberately added or incidentally
incorporated in a clay paste. Through exploring the chemical, mineralogical and petrographic composition
of ceramics, we also investigate whether different pastes were used contemporarily by potters from
Kałdus for different types of wares during the mid-4th millennium BC.
The results has allowed us to hypothesise a local provenance of the bone-tempered vase from Kałdus.
Furthermore, the TRB potters’ choices to add crushed and burned bones to a clay paste seemed to lack a
technological basis. Rather, it appears that a temper made of bones had strong symbolic associations and was
most likely ritualised in the working memory of the TRB potters from Kałdus, or even the entire TRB East Group
milieu.
Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture from the territory that is today Poland. In this paper we contribute to this debate by
closely examining the geochemical characteristics (using INAA, ICP-MS, SEM-EDS, γ-ray spectrometry and OM)
of six ceramic vessels collected from the archaeological site in Kałdus, northern Poland. Particular emphasis is
placed on the need to clarify whether the bones in the pottery from Kałdus were deliberately added or incidentally
incorporated in a clay paste. Through exploring the chemical, mineralogical and petrographic composition
of ceramics, we also investigate whether different pastes were used contemporarily by potters from
Kałdus for different types of wares during the mid-4th millennium BC.
The results has allowed us to hypothesise a local provenance of the bone-tempered vase from Kałdus.
Furthermore, the TRB potters’ choices to add crushed and burned bones to a clay paste seemed to lack a
technological basis. Rather, it appears that a temper made of bones had strong symbolic associations and was
most likely ritualised in the working memory of the TRB potters from Kałdus, or even the entire TRB East Group
milieu.
Research Interests:
This study reports the results of archaeometallurgical investigations performed on a complete two-part bronze casting mould discovered in the village of Elgiszewo (north Poland). The mould was part of the so-called Lusatian founder’s... more
This study reports the results of archaeometallurgical investigations performed on a complete two-part bronze casting mould discovered in the village of Elgiszewo (north Poland). The mould was part of the so-called Lusatian founder’s hoard deposited on the southern borders of the Chełmno group territory between 900 and 700 BC. The investigations involved the employment of spectral (ED XRF, SEM-EDS, X-ray) and microscopic (SEM-EDS, OM) analyses. The experimental casting of the model mould and socketed axe was carried out in this study as well. The chemical composition of the mould indicates the use of fire-refined (oxidized) fahlore scrap bronze, which could originally be composed of North Tyrolean copper fahlores. The metallographic results furthermore indicate deliberate tin abandonment by the Lusatian metalworker to maintain a thermal resistance of the mould during direct metal casting. Having analysed the results of the performed research, we can state that the mould from Elgiszewo was capable of ensuring direct casting and was in fact used by the Lusatian metalworkers for this purpose before the mould was finally deposited.
Research Interests: Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy, Late Bronze Age archaeology, and 8 moreArchaeometallurgy, Urnfield Culture, Ancient Metallurgy, Metallography, Bronze Age metal hoards, Lusatian Culture, Non invasive analyses, and Copper Alloys
For a long time, the Eneolithic attribution of the Rudki-type double spiral ornaments was contested by a wide academic audience, and therefore, this new and extraordinary category of the copper metalwork seemed to have fallen into... more
For a long time, the Eneolithic attribution of the Rudki-type double spiral ornaments was contested by a wide academic audience, and therefore, this new and extraordinary category of the copper metalwork seemed to have fallen into scientific oblivion. In this paper, we contribute to the debate about cultural attribution of the Rudki-type double spiral ornaments considering their chemical and isotope characteristics (using ED XRF and MC-ICP-MS) and the manufacturing technology (OM, X-ray, CT). Noticeably, this study represents the first documented implementation of the lead isotope analysis (LIA) for the Eneolithic metalwork from Poland. The new scientific analyses give ground to the hypothesis that the Rudki-type double spiral ornaments were produced by the Baden culture metalworker(s) who practiced somewhere in the Carpathian Basin and who have used copper ore mined in the Slovak Ore Mountains (Špania Dolina-Banská Bystrica-Kremnica mine complex). These ornaments were redistributed towards the northern ecumene of the Baden culture complex. The new owners, the Funnel Beaker (TRB) culture communities from the region of modern Poland, deposited the ornaments in hoards (Kałdus, Przeuszyn and Rudki) during the mid-4th millennium BC. The results, furthermore, indicate that the so-called Baden spiral metalwork package must be now complemented by the Rudki-type double spiral ornaments. Remarkably, this package also found an echo in pottery decoration, as documented by a narrative scene incised on an amphora from Kałdus, which could be also interpreted as one of the earliest known proofs for the wagon transport in Europe, alongside the famous ones reported from Bronocice or Flintbek.
Research Interests:
This work is a contribution to the debate about the presence of the steppe-styled metalwork in the inventories of the Lusatian communities from Cuyavia and the Chełmno land. Here, we try to provide some new archaeometallurgical arguments... more
This work is a contribution to the debate about the presence of the steppe-styled metalwork in the inventories of the Lusatian communities from Cuyavia and the Chełmno land. Here, we try to provide some new archaeometallurgical arguments to stimulate this discussion again. For a long time the steppe-styled metal artefacts (e.g. trilobite arrowheads, nail earrings) were commonly believed to be a fingerprint of the military expansion committed on the local communities by the steppe hordes during the Early Iron Age. Concerning the northern province of the Lusatian culture complex, such an expansion was connected with the destruction relics recognized among the defensive settlements in Biskupin, Kamieniec, or Kruszwica. However, the research results reported from the Tarnobrzeg culture metalworkshop in Zawada in the 1980s significantly influenced on the perception of the mechanisms by which the steppe-styled metalwork emerged in the Lusatian communities. There are, therefore, two compatible models which may refer to Cuyavia and the Chełmno land: (1) the acculturation model, concerning an exchange and local imitating of the foreign metalwork, and (2) the model of the military expansion of the steppe hordes. The first one may be evidenced by the nail earrings recovered from the cemetery in Mała Kępa, whereas the other one happens to be justified by the bimetallic daggers (akinakes) from Bodzanowo and Płonczynek. What is significant, the acculturation model is based on the findings of the clay moulds for the nail earrings, and thus, it refers to the mechanism of local imitating the steppe-styled jewellery. Having analysed the results of the research performed we can state that the acculturation model should also include the mechanism of local imitating the military accessories, such as the trilobite arrowheads. This may be proved by the bronze arrowhead discovered in the defensive settlement at Kamieniec.
Research Interests:
W artykule przedstawiono wyniki studiów archeometalurgicznych dotyczących płaskiej siekiery, odkrytej przypadkowo w 2016 r. na gruntach miejscowości Łady, gm. Iłów, pow. sochaczewski. Zabytek jest pierwszym okazem eneolitycznej siekiery... more
W artykule przedstawiono wyniki studiów archeometalurgicznych dotyczących płaskiej siekiery, odkrytej przypadkowo w 2016 r. na gruntach miejscowości Łady, gm. Iłów, pow. sochaczewski. Zabytek jest pierwszym okazem eneolitycznej siekiery miedzianej z Mazowsza. Przeprowadzono badanie składu surowcowego siekiery (EDXRF) i analizę jej powierzchni (OM). Określono przynależność typologiczną zabytku i poddano pod dyskusję kul-turowo-społeczny kontekst siekier płaskich na obszarze ziem polskich. Ustalono, że siekiera została odlana z miedzi arsenowej i nie była najprawdopodobniej użytkowana w pradziejach. Kontekst odkrycia oraz stan zachowania zabytku wskazują, że został on zdeponowany w środowisku mokrym. Na podstawie analizy typologicznej siekierę z Ład zaklasyfikowano do typu Bytyń w wariancie A. Powinno się zatem traktować ją jako pojedynczy skarb akwatyczny, zdeponowany przez wspólnoty kultury pucharów lejkowatych z Kotliny Warszawskiej między 3600/3500–3200/3100 cal.BC.
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ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
This work presents the archaeometallurgical studies performed on the flat axe discovered accidentally in 2016 near the village Łady, Iłów commune, Sochaczew district. The axe is the first find of such an object reported from Mazovia. The axe is described in terms of raw-material profile (EDXRF) as well as its macrostucture (OM). This has been juxtaposed throughout this work with the results of typological and contextual (sociocultural) analysis of the Bytyń axes, which have also been found on Polish territory. It has been established that the axe was cast from arsenical copper. It is likely that the find from Łady did not serve as a functional tool in the past. The discovery context and the state of preservation indicate that the axe was deposited in an aquatic environment. By means of a typological analysis the find from Łady was classified as a flat axe of Bytyń A type and therefore it should be considered as the single hoard deposited by the Funnel Beaker culture communities from the Warsaw Basin between 3600/3500 and 3200/3100 cal. BC.
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ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
This work presents the archaeometallurgical studies performed on the flat axe discovered accidentally in 2016 near the village Łady, Iłów commune, Sochaczew district. The axe is the first find of such an object reported from Mazovia. The axe is described in terms of raw-material profile (EDXRF) as well as its macrostucture (OM). This has been juxtaposed throughout this work with the results of typological and contextual (sociocultural) analysis of the Bytyń axes, which have also been found on Polish territory. It has been established that the axe was cast from arsenical copper. It is likely that the find from Łady did not serve as a functional tool in the past. The discovery context and the state of preservation indicate that the axe was deposited in an aquatic environment. By means of a typological analysis the find from Łady was classified as a flat axe of Bytyń A type and therefore it should be considered as the single hoard deposited by the Funnel Beaker culture communities from the Warsaw Basin between 3600/3500 and 3200/3100 cal. BC.
Research Interests:
Preliminary chronology of the copper ingot from Skołoszow, site 7, Jarosław district falls within the range from 2nd half of phase TRB-MES I to 1st half of phase TRB-MES II (3950/3900– 3700/3600 BC). It seems reliable that the upper limit... more
Preliminary chronology of the copper ingot from Skołoszow,
site 7, Jarosław district falls within the range from 2nd half of
phase TRB-MES I to 1st half of phase TRB-MES II (3950/3900–
3700/3600 BC). It seems reliable that the upper limit of
possible dating of the ingot is the beginning of phase TRBMES
III (3600/3500 BC), which in fact is marked by significant
emergence of artefacts made from arsenic copper to Central Europe, especially their intensified flow-in to the Funnel Beaker
Culture communities. Concerning the discovery context of the
copper artefacts recovered from Racibórz, Gródek Nadbużny
and Przybranówek (Funnel Beaker Culture), chronological
range for the copper ingot from Skołoszów (based on raw
material profile) may be narrowed and established between
3800/3700 and 3650/3500 BC.
site 7, Jarosław district falls within the range from 2nd half of
phase TRB-MES I to 1st half of phase TRB-MES II (3950/3900–
3700/3600 BC). It seems reliable that the upper limit of
possible dating of the ingot is the beginning of phase TRBMES
III (3600/3500 BC), which in fact is marked by significant
emergence of artefacts made from arsenic copper to Central Europe, especially their intensified flow-in to the Funnel Beaker
Culture communities. Concerning the discovery context of the
copper artefacts recovered from Racibórz, Gródek Nadbużny
and Przybranówek (Funnel Beaker Culture), chronological
range for the copper ingot from Skołoszów (based on raw
material profile) may be narrowed and established between
3800/3700 and 3650/3500 BC.
Research Interests:
This work is a contribution to archaeometallurgical studies on the Únětice axes in Poland. The research was initiated by a single find of the Wrocław–Szczytniki flanged axe recovered from the village of Koperniki (Lower Silesia, Poland).... more
This work is a contribution to archaeometallurgical studies on the Únětice axes in Poland. The research was initiated by a single find of the Wrocław–Szczytniki flanged axe recovered from the village of Koperniki (Lower Silesia, Poland). The axe was examined in terms of raw–material profile (ED–XRF) as well as its micro-, and macrostructure (OM). The spatial distribution, deposition context, and raw–material profiles of the remaining Únětice axes from Central-Eastern Europe, with a special emphasis put on those recovered from the Polish land, were also juxtaposed throughout this work. It has been established that the axe from Koperniki was cast in standard Sn–bronze alloyed from so-called Eastern Alpine copper, and thus, the axe may be considered as one of the very last Wrocław–Szczytniki specimens emerging in the Odra and Vistula Basins. Although the casting was intensively plastic-worked out, the axe from Koperniki itself was not used in the past. Hence, the statement that the axe was intended to serve as a prestigious or insignia metal object rather than fulfil utilitarian functions seems reasonable. The obtained conclusions indicate that the single wet–findings of the Wrocław–Szczytniki axes (including the specimen from Koperniki) reflect indeed the aquatic hierophanies of single hoards. Furthermore, having analysed the results of the research performed we can state that the raw–material profile of some Únětice axes presents the chronological sensitivity, and thus, confirms their usability for raw-material dating, especially concerning so-called single finds.
Research Interests: Prehistoric Archaeology, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Archaeometallurgy, Bronze Age (Archaeology), Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), and 10 morePrehistory, Non Destructive Testing, Metallography, Unetice culture, Copper, Hoard finds, Archaeometallurgical Researchs, Bronze Age metal hoards, Copper Alloys, and Iwno Culture
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The article presents the results of archaeometallurgical studies performed on a so-called copper axe recovered from the vicinity of a former village of Antoniny, Chodzież district (Great Poland).The relics of an intensive settlement... more
The article presents the results of archaeometallurgical studies performed on a so-called copper axe recovered from the vicinity of a former village of Antoniny, Chodzież district (Great Poland).The relics of an intensive settlement activity taken by the Funnel Beaker culture (TRB) groups were recognized around the discovery place. By means of the typological analysis it was found that the so-called axe from Antoniny is a defragmented part of a Jászladány B3 type axe-adze. Its chronology can be arbitrarily placed between the late 5th and 2nd half of 4th millennium BC. The axe-adze from Antoniny is another aquatic metal finding (deposited probably also with a dagger) related to the Funnel Beaker culture. The axe-adze was described in terms of its raw material profile (EDXRF) and micro- and macrostructure (OM). With established both contextual and raw material profiles, the provenance and chronology of the deposition act of the axe-adze from Antoniny were also discussed
Research Interests: Prehistoric Archaeology, Neolithic Archaeology, Neolithic & Chalcolithic Archaeology, Archaeometallurgy, Funnel Beaker Culture, and 10 moreNeolithic Europe, Non Destructive Testing, Metallography, Copper, Hoard finds, Eneolithic, Copper age, Archaeometallurgical Researchs, Eneolithic in Central Europe, and Bodrogkeresztur Culture
This study characterizes the bronze jewellery recovered from the Lusatian culture urn-field in Mała Kępa (Chełmno land, Poland). Among many common ornaments (e.g. necklaces, rings, pins) the ones giving evidence of a steppe-styled... more
This study characterizes the bronze jewellery recovered from the Lusatian culture urn-field in Mała Kępa (Chełmno land, Poland). Among many common ornaments (e.g. necklaces, rings, pins) the ones giving evidence of a steppe-styled inspiration (nail earrings) were also identified. With the dendritic microstructures revealed, the nail earrings prove the implementing of a lost-wax casting method, whereas some of the castings were further subjected to metalworking. The elemental composition indicates the application of two main types of bronze alloys: Cu-Sn and Cu-Sn-Pb. It has been established that the Lusatian metalworkers were familiar with re-melting the scrap bronze and made themselves capable of roasting the sulphide-rich ores. The collection from Mała Kępa has been described in terms of its structure and composition. The investigations were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM). In order to fingerprint an alloy profile of the castings with a special emphasis on the nail earrings, the data-set (ED-XRF, EDS) was statistically evaluated using multidimensional analyses (FA, DA).
Research Interests: Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Archaeometry, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy, Archaeometallurgy, and 12 moreScythian archaeology, Urnfield Culture, Prehistory, Non Destructive Testing, Iron Age, Prehistoric Archeology, Investment Casting, Scythians, Lusatian Culture, Scythian and other Eurasian Nomadic Horse Warrior Cultures, Lost Wax Bronze Casting, and Copper Alloys
This study characterizes extraordinary Balteus belt–fittings recovered from the Wielbark culture cemetery in Linowo (Chełmno land, Poland). The belt–fittings were cast in Cu–alloys and decorated with embossed applications made of noble... more
This study characterizes extraordinary Balteus belt–fittings recovered from the Wielbark culture cemetery in Linowo (Chełmno land, Poland). The belt–fittings were cast in Cu–alloys and decorated with embossed applications made of noble metals. Among the belt–fittings, some other grave inventory was also placed with the deceased.
The metal inventory was described in terms of its composition and structure. The investigations were performed by means of the energy dispersive X–ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDXRF). In order to fingerprint the Balteus belt–fittings manufacturing technology, the investigations involved the employment of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with the energy dispersive X–ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM).
The elemental composition indicates the application of two main types of Cu–alloys, i.e. scrap bronze (Cu–Sn, Cu–Sn–Pb, Cu–Pb–Sn) and scrap leaded gunmetal (Cu–Sn–Pb–Zn). It has been established that the Barbarian metalworkers were familiar with embossing the Au–Ag foils and made themselves capable of attaching them to a metal background with Sn–Pb solder. Based on the metallographic data, the reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire used for manufacturing the belt–fittings was implemented in this study as well.
The metal inventory was described in terms of its composition and structure. The investigations were performed by means of the energy dispersive X–ray fluorescence spectroscopy (EDXRF). In order to fingerprint the Balteus belt–fittings manufacturing technology, the investigations involved the employment of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with the energy dispersive X–ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM).
The elemental composition indicates the application of two main types of Cu–alloys, i.e. scrap bronze (Cu–Sn, Cu–Sn–Pb, Cu–Pb–Sn) and scrap leaded gunmetal (Cu–Sn–Pb–Zn). It has been established that the Barbarian metalworkers were familiar with embossing the Au–Ag foils and made themselves capable of attaching them to a metal background with Sn–Pb solder. Based on the metallographic data, the reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire used for manufacturing the belt–fittings was implemented in this study as well.
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In the present work, an archaeometric approach was used to investigate sample of the functional tools collected from the Sąspów, Cracow district, and Wierzbica ‘Zele’, Radom district, flint mines sites. The investigated collection was... more
In the present work, an archaeometric approach was used to investigate sample of the functional tools collected from the Sąspów, Cracow district, and Wierzbica ‘Zele’, Radom district, flint mines sites. The investigated collection was completed on four non-use-worn specimens. The presence of areas enriched in iron (Fe) compounds has been noticed on the surfaces of all the specimens. They were analyzed by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS). Data sets were statistically evaluated using similarity analysis (DA, CA, MDS). The results indicated the variables that best discriminate the investigated flint artifacts collection in terms of either anthropoghenic or non-anthropoghenic nature of the residues preserved on their surfaces.
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This preliminary study characterizes the bronze metalworking on a defensive settlement of the Lusatian culture in former Kamieniec (Chełmno land, Poland) as it is reflected through casting workshop recovered during recent excavations.... more
This preliminary study characterizes the bronze metalworking on a defensive settlement of the Lusatian culture in former Kamieniec (Chełmno land, Poland) as it is reflected through casting workshop recovered during recent excavations. Among ready products, the ones giving evidence of local metallurgy (e.g. casting moulds and main runners) were also identified. With the shrinkage cavities and dendritic microstructures revealed, the artifacts prove the implementing a casting method by the Lusatian culture metalworkers. The elemental composition indicates application of two main types of bronzes: Cu-Sn and Cu-Pb. Aside these main alloying additions, some natural impurities such as silver, arsenic, antimony and nickel were found which may be attributed to the origin of the ore and casting technology. The collection from Kamieniec was described in terms of its structure and composition. The investigations were made by means of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system (EDS) and optical microscopy (OM). In order to fingerprint either local or non-local profile of the alloys, the ED-XRF data-set was statistically evaluated using a factor analysis (FA).
Research Interests:
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In the present work, an archaeological and metallurgical approach were used to investigate a hammer-axe collected from Karłowice Małe, Kamiennik municipality, Nysa district, Opole voivodeship. Multicultural Neolithic relics were recovered... more
In the present work, an archaeological and metallurgical approach were used to investigate a hammer-axe collected from Karłowice Małe, Kamiennik municipality, Nysa district, Opole voivodeship. Multicultural Neolithic relics were recovered within a 5 km of the artifact’s discovery place. However, it is difficult to apply the hammer- axe to a certain Neolithic cultural group. By means of a typological analysis, both type and relative chronology of the artifact were established. The hammer-axe belongs to a Szendrő A type and it is highly likely to be an import from the Carpathian Basin. The Szendrő hammer-axes were in circulation around the late 5th millenium to a first half of 4th millennium cal. BC. In order to establish a chemical composition of the artifact and to examine its surface in terms of macrostructural defects, the metallurgical analyses were performed. It was found that the hammer-axe was made of arsenical copper. The workmanship technique and usage traces left on its surface were recognized. The chemical composition and spatial distribution of the Szendrő hammer-axes were contrasted throughout this work in order to highlight the possible provenance of the hammer-axe from Karłowice Małe.
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Die metallkundlichen Untersuchungen erfassten 25 Gegenstände, die auf dem birituellen Gräberfeld der Wielbark-Kultur entdeckt wurden (Taf.1). Es erfolgte spektrometrische Bestimmung der elementaren Zusammensetzung der Gegenstände (XRF),... more
Die metallkundlichen Untersuchungen erfassten 25 Gegenstände, die auf dem birituellen Gräberfeld der Wielbark-Kultur entdeckt wurden (Taf.1). Es erfolgte spektrometrische Bestimmung der elementaren Zusammensetzung der Gegenstände (XRF), die zeigte, dass sie alle aus Kupferlegierungen hergestellt wurden (Taf. 2). Bei ihrem Abbau fallen 48% den Erzeugnissen aus der Bronze-Klasse (Zinnbronze, Bleizinnbronze, Rotgussbronze) und 52% den Erzeugnissen aus der Messing-Klasse (klassisches Messing, Zinnmessing, Bleizinnmessing) (Abb. 1) zu. Diese Einteilung korreliert grundsätzlich mit den Untersuchungsergebnissen über ihre Herkunft und definiert das lokale (Messing-Klasse) und das nichtlokale (Bronze-Klasse) Legierungsprofil (tab.5).
Es wurde festgestellt, dass alle Fibeln der V. und VI. technologischen Gruppe das lokale Gewerbe vertreten und [mit der Ausnahme der Fibel vom Typ A.VI.170 (Nr. 12)] zur Messing-Klasse gehören. Zwei Fibeln vom Typ A.IV.84 und A.V.96 (Nr. 16 und Nr. 24) waren mit Silberfolien verziert, die auf der Unterlage mit Lötzinn befestigt waren. Der Bügel der Fibel vom Typ A.VI.170 (Nr. 12) wurde vermutlich mit Lötzinn überzogen (Abb. 2).
Die Ergebnisse der Messungen wurden einer Vergleichsanalyse unterzogen, auch einer Diskriminationsanalyse. Sie erlaubte eine Verfolgung und Bestimmung der Regeln der Assoziation einzelner Variabler, die die chemischen Profile der Gegenstände umschreiben. Man unternahm den Versuch der Bestimmung der Herkunft einzelner Erzeugnisse und der Gegenüberstellung der erlangten Ergebnisse mit den bisherigen archäologischen Erkenntnissen.
Die Ergebnisse der Vergleichsanalyse bestätigten den nichtlokalen Charakter von zwei Fibeln vom Typ A.IV.84 (Nr. 15 und Nr. 16) und stärkten die Annahme, dass man sie als Importen (vermutlich aus dem Gebiet Pannoniens) behandeln soll. Gleiches gilt für die Elemente des Gürtelbeschlags vom Typ balteus (Nr. 1–3) und die Fibel aus der Gruppe VII (Nr. 23). Hergestellt wurden sie vermutlich in den Werkstätten der Gießer im Einzugsgebiet der Elbe (Abb. 6–8, Taf. 9).
Im Falle von drei Gräbern (Befunde 159, 219 und 222) wurde festgestellt, dass die dort deponierten Gegenstände eine einheitliche (ausschließlich lokale oder nichtlokale) Herkunft haben (Taf. 6). Die Ausstattung der sonstigen Gräber enthält Erzeugnisse verschiedener Herkunft. Dies bietet gewisse Grundlagen für Überlegungen über die Kontakte der örtlichen Wielbark-Kultur mit der Bevölkerung verschiedener Kulturkreise.
Es wurde festgestellt, dass alle Fibeln der V. und VI. technologischen Gruppe das lokale Gewerbe vertreten und [mit der Ausnahme der Fibel vom Typ A.VI.170 (Nr. 12)] zur Messing-Klasse gehören. Zwei Fibeln vom Typ A.IV.84 und A.V.96 (Nr. 16 und Nr. 24) waren mit Silberfolien verziert, die auf der Unterlage mit Lötzinn befestigt waren. Der Bügel der Fibel vom Typ A.VI.170 (Nr. 12) wurde vermutlich mit Lötzinn überzogen (Abb. 2).
Die Ergebnisse der Messungen wurden einer Vergleichsanalyse unterzogen, auch einer Diskriminationsanalyse. Sie erlaubte eine Verfolgung und Bestimmung der Regeln der Assoziation einzelner Variabler, die die chemischen Profile der Gegenstände umschreiben. Man unternahm den Versuch der Bestimmung der Herkunft einzelner Erzeugnisse und der Gegenüberstellung der erlangten Ergebnisse mit den bisherigen archäologischen Erkenntnissen.
Die Ergebnisse der Vergleichsanalyse bestätigten den nichtlokalen Charakter von zwei Fibeln vom Typ A.IV.84 (Nr. 15 und Nr. 16) und stärkten die Annahme, dass man sie als Importen (vermutlich aus dem Gebiet Pannoniens) behandeln soll. Gleiches gilt für die Elemente des Gürtelbeschlags vom Typ balteus (Nr. 1–3) und die Fibel aus der Gruppe VII (Nr. 23). Hergestellt wurden sie vermutlich in den Werkstätten der Gießer im Einzugsgebiet der Elbe (Abb. 6–8, Taf. 9).
Im Falle von drei Gräbern (Befunde 159, 219 und 222) wurde festgestellt, dass die dort deponierten Gegenstände eine einheitliche (ausschließlich lokale oder nichtlokale) Herkunft haben (Taf. 6). Die Ausstattung der sonstigen Gräber enthält Erzeugnisse verschiedener Herkunft. Dies bietet gewisse Grundlagen für Überlegungen über die Kontakte der örtlichen Wielbark-Kultur mit der Bevölkerung verschiedener Kulturkreise.
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Arsenical copper has been used since 5 th millennium cal.BC, later exchanged by application of Cu-Sn alloys in metallurgy. This work presents the results of metallographic and mechanical properties studies performed on two flat axes... more
Arsenical copper has been used since 5 th millennium cal.BC, later exchanged by application of Cu-Sn alloys in metallurgy. This work presents the results of metallographic and mechanical properties studies performed on two flat axes connected with local Eneolithic societies (4500-3000 cal.BC). The axes are one of the oldest metal artifacts from Polish land. Originally they were made from Cu-As alloy, and their chemical composition was established by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Their microstructure was analysed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy conducted with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The macrostructure analysis (OM) of the axes was performed as well. On the basis of the results, the alloys used in the Eneolithic to cast the axes were reproduced in lab. In order to achieve the characteristics of the alloys, their mechanical properties including ultimate tensile strenght (UTS), hardness (HB), microhardness (HV0,1) and ductility were examined. The solidification process was studied by means of thermal analysis.
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In the archaeological collection of the Museum in Grudziądz there is the copper axe (inventory no. MG/A/158, previously no. 3407, fig. 1), of the Neolithic chronology. This is one of the oldest metal artifacts from Lower Vistula Valley... more
In the archaeological collection of the Museum in Grudziądz there is the copper axe (inventory no. MG/A/158, previously
no. 3407, fig. 1), of the Neolithic chronology. This is one of the oldest metal artifacts from Lower Vistula Valley and
Grudziądz Basin. The axe was discovered in 1896 in Weißhof, Kr. Graudenz (Białydwór, mun. Grudziądz), as an isolated
artifact. We do not know whether the axe was a part of a hoard or an element of burial equipment, or whether
it was abandoned or deposited in some settlement in the Neolithic. We may assume that this isolated artifact was taken
out of primary archaeological context that remains obscure to us. As a result the scientific value of the discovery was
reduced to information on the circumstances of the discovery and morphological and technological features of the
axe. These data have not been fulfill yet.
This article is devoted to organize and verify the information on the axe from Biały Bór. Moreover it is aimed to improve knowladge about the axe by performing the metallurgical analyses including elemental composition and macrostructure analyses.
no. 3407, fig. 1), of the Neolithic chronology. This is one of the oldest metal artifacts from Lower Vistula Valley and
Grudziądz Basin. The axe was discovered in 1896 in Weißhof, Kr. Graudenz (Białydwór, mun. Grudziądz), as an isolated
artifact. We do not know whether the axe was a part of a hoard or an element of burial equipment, or whether
it was abandoned or deposited in some settlement in the Neolithic. We may assume that this isolated artifact was taken
out of primary archaeological context that remains obscure to us. As a result the scientific value of the discovery was
reduced to information on the circumstances of the discovery and morphological and technological features of the
axe. These data have not been fulfill yet.
This article is devoted to organize and verify the information on the axe from Biały Bór. Moreover it is aimed to improve knowladge about the axe by performing the metallurgical analyses including elemental composition and macrostructure analyses.
Research Interests:
The paper presents the results of archaeological and metallurgical research performed on a hoard of three metal objects: a double spiral ornament, a dagger and a hammer-axe. The artefacts were discovered at site 2 in Kałdus, Chełmno... more
The paper presents the results of archaeological and metallurgical research performed on a hoard of three metal objects: a double spiral ornament, a dagger and a hammer-axe. The artefacts were discovered at site 2 in Kałdus, Chełmno commune, kujawsko-pomorskie voivodeship. The objects were discovered within the Wiórek phase of a Funnel Beaker culture context. They were probably deposited into a votive pit. Typological analyses have been carried out. The relative chronology of the objects was determined by the results of typological analyses. The dagger is of Usatovo type and the typological classification of the other objects causes difficulties. The hoard is dated to the second half of the 4th millennium cal. BC. The artefacts’ chemical composition and macrostructure analyses were also performed. It has been concluded that all the objects from the hoard were made of arsenic copper with the dagger also enriched with arsenic minerals. The manufacture technique and objects’ usage traces have been recognized. Using the results of typological and chemical analyses the provenance of the hoard from Kałdus is discussed.
Research Interests: Neolithic Archaeology, Neolithic & Chalcolithic Archaeology, Archaeometry, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy, Archaeometallurgy, and 12 moreFunnel Beaker Culture, Neolithic Europe, Copper extraction and production, Copper, Hoard finds, Eneolithic, Eneolithic in Central Europe, Daggers, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Early Bronze Age, European Copper and Bronze Age – Archaeometallurgy – Prehistoric Metalworking in Social Context – Settlement Archaeology – Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeology – Neolithic – Theory / Cultural Anthropology – Material Culture Studies, Late Eneolithic, and Arsenical Copper-tin Bronze
This work presents the results of metallographic studies performed on four Eneolithic and Bronze Age artifacts from Poland. All of them are of none archaeological context therefore its academic value is strongly reduced. The aim of this... more
This work presents the results of metallographic studies performed on four Eneolithic and Bronze Age artifacts from Poland. All of them are of none archaeological context therefore its academic value is strongly reduced. The aim of this work is to deal with such a reduced data in a way of improving and verifing current state of knowledge about the artifacts. In order to achieve this goal elemental composition (XRF), microstructure analysis (SEM-EDS), macrostructure analysis
(optical microscopy) and 3D scanning were performed.
(optical microscopy) and 3D scanning were performed.