Common Knowledge

Prevailing views about what constitutes organisational knowledge need to be systematically evaluated at deep epistemological levels. We argue there is a need is to establish a new paradigm comprising of both a theoretical and an ontological foundation for thinking about knowledge epistemologies. We think, along with Bill McKelvey, (1997, 2002) that the “science of management” as it relates to organisations seems to be greatly wanting.Our approach is based on an evolutionary theory of knowledge contained within Karl Popper’s later epistemological works beginning with his 1972 “Objective Knowledge – an evolutionary approach” and a framework of organisational theory based on Maturana and Varela's concept of self-producing complex systems ("autopoiesis"). We have drawn upon this combined approach in order to understand how best to integrate understandings of personal and objective knowledge and the notion of “living organisations” into a new paradigm of organisational know...

With the evolution of an API library, its documentation also evolves. The evolution of API documentation is common knowledge for programmers and library developers, but not in a quantitative form. Without such quantitative knowledge, programmers may neglect important revisions of API documentation, and library developers may not effectively improve API documentation based on its revision histories. There is a strong need to conduct a quantitative study on API documentation evolution. However, as API documentation is large in size and revisions can be complicated, it is quite challenging to conduct such a study. In this paper, we present an analysis methodology to analyze the evolution of API documentation. Based on the methodology, we conduct a quantitative study on API documentation evolution of five widely used real-world libraries. The results reveal various valuable findings, and these findings allow programmers and library developers to better understand API documentation evolution.

In this regard, several opportunities have opened up in the last few years. Calabria belongs to the Regions of Objective 1 of The European Union (regions with development delay), characterised by a PIL value less than 75% of the community average. In order to recuperate the economic and social delay of these areas, the European Union finances development with Structural

Ever since the concept of the “unconscious” defragmented one of the last nuclei of certitude in the western world, one of the great mysteries that common knowledge has come to associate with psychology is the idea that much of what goes on in our lives occurs outside of awareness. In other words, what we experience is but the tip of the iceberg: massive amounts of information are processed, have an influence on our behaviour, all the while going unnoticed. But is this the case? It seems indeed that we are not always able to retrace the associative causal chains that lead to a thought or action (though the degree to which this is the case is still being debated) - but according to the way we consciously experience the world, it seems to be both immediate and complete to us. Apart from the fact that we may not be able to perceive the entirety of the external world due to information processing limitations inherent to our physical system, what seems more unsettling is that we may not even be able to experience all that we perceive! Is there some limitation of our own internal system that keeps not only the world, but the way this world is represented in us fundamentally unknowable to ourselves?

This paper introduces the current machine learning approach to solving spatial modeling problems in the domain of landslide susceptibility assessment. The latter is introduced as a classification problem, having multiple (geological, morphological, environmental etc.) attributes and one referent landslide inventory map from which to devise the classification rules. Three different machine learning algorithms were compared: Support Vector Machines, Decision Trees and Logistic Regression. A specific area of the Fruška Gora Mountain (Serbia) was selected to perform the entire modeling procedure, from attribute and referent data preparation/processing, through the classifiers' implementation to the evaluation, carried out in terms of the model's performance and agreement with the referent data. The experiments showed that Support Vector Machines outperformed the other proposed methods, and hence this algorithm was selected as the model of choice to be compared with a common knowledge-driven method – the Analytical Hierarchy Process – to create a landslide susceptibility map of the relevant area. The SVM classifier outperformed the AHP approach in all evaluation metrics (κ index, area under ROC curve and false positive rate in stable ground class).► After conducting experiments based on the sampling over the entire area, the SVM turned to be the model of choice. ► In the mapping task on a neighboring terrain, SVM achieved better performance than AHP model in all evaluation measures. ► The results of the 2nd mapping task were weaker in comparison to the 1st one (different distribution of input parameters). ► SVM do not need any feature selection technique as opposed to some other methods such as Decision Trees.

After the fall of the Soviet Union, market capitalism replaced socialism in Eastern Europe. Supposedly, the new economic logic would allocate resources impartially, allowing the possibility of prosperity for those who worked hard. What happened instead is that citizens from Russia to Romania, Serbia to Albania poured billions of dollars into pyramid schemes advertising astronomical returns. These investment vehicles never explained how they would produce such wealth. In fact, the leaders commonly employed religious rhetoric to convince people to simply have faith and turn over their cash. When the schemes inevitably crashed, riots broke out. Following Michael Taussig’s work with newly proletarianized workers in South America, anthropologists like Katherine Verdery and Jean and John Comaroff have documented how magic and the occult always accompany the cool calculus of modern life. A baker’s dozen of humanities scholars have now brought that insight to the fields of literature, histo...

The 2nd National E-learning Conference defines e-learning as: “technologically-supported learning, which includes the use of electronic media such as the Internet, personal computers, phone bridging, audio and videotape, video teleconferencing, satellite broadcast, mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and other related technologies to enhance teaching and learning.”

A general definition of structural knowledge has not yet been established. This article provides a working definition of structural knowledge (related to the concept of deep understanding) from literature analysis. Common knowledge tests are compared on the theoretical basis of this working definition. The following comparison is done via an altered version of the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) evaluation paradigm. This comparison between the different methods is further analyzed to generate design rules that can be applied to create a test that accounts better for the working definition of structural knowledge. These rules are then used exemplarily to create a test on a school course of chemistry. The test is initially tested at a small scale to explore its possibilities and then evaluated by the same SWOT analysis that was used earlier. The findings are mostly of prospective value for the paper at hand due to time constrains, small sample size as well as l...

Common ground is a problematic concept. It is a necessary part of any pragmatic theory because it names the context that speakers take for granted in carrying out a communicative act, or in other words the background against which a signal shows up as a particular pattern of sounds or shapes, words, and social effects. But it is too often either ignored or treated as a stative body of information, a definition which makes it impossible to understand how common ground is used and instantiated in actual conversations. This essay remedies this problem by presenting a novel account of common ground which subsumes most extant theories by approaching the topic separately on each of three levels of explanation. I begin by presenting a dynamical definition of common ground based on elements of Stalnaker’s theory of speaker presupposition, on which common ground is the information presented by a speaker as not-at-issue in the process of carrying out some speech act. I then justify and enrich this approach with a psycholinguistic account of the uses of common ground in conversation based on Clark’s work on joint action, and show that common ground underlies both egocentric and cooperative communication. I then justify and enrich the psycholinguistic account by showing how it is instantiated on a biological level as intra- and interpersonal synergies in a conversation. Finally, I use an analysis of referring to illustrate the relations between these three levels of description, which between presupposition and joint action and between joint action and synergies I take to be one of coherence, clarification, and specifying the object of explanation. In the other direction - from synergies to joint action and joint action to presupposition - the relation is one of grounding and providing naturalistic credentials via mechanistic details. The originality and generality of this explanatory strategy suggest tremendous opportunities for pragmatic research from a dynamical perspective.

The photoelectric effect is widely taught in schools and institutions. It is common knowledge that in order for photoelectrons to be emitted, the energy of the incoming photons must be greater than the work function of the irradiated metal (i.e. hν > phiemitter). However, what may not be as commonly known is that the 'phi' in Einstein's photoelectric equation (eVs = hν - phi) is often implicitly and mistakenly taken as the work function of the emitter (or anode) rather than that of the collector (or cathode). This paper provides experimental evidence for the more correct but the non-intuitive form of the photoelectric equation eVs = hν - phicollector, which can also be theoretically derived by taking into account the contact potential difference between the electrodes. This equation is shown experimentally to be invalid for hν < phiemitter and hν > phicollector, even though in such a case a positive Vs (stopping potential) is obtained by the equation, no Vs is obtainable experimentally. However, the equation is valid for hν < phicollector and hν > phiemitter where a negative Vs is obtained from the equation, which corresponds to an experimentally observed 'starting potential'.

ركزت الدراسات الاجتماعية على الاستعمالات السياسية والأيديولوجية للدين، ولم تهتم بظواهر دينية يومية
در مرتبطة بعموم الناس كالصلاة، اللباس، اختيار الشريك، والقروض المصرفية. وتحاول هذه المقالة إبراز أهمية دراسة التدين في

 



ركزت الدراسات الاجتماعية على الاستعمالات السياسية والأيديولوجية للدين، ولم تهتم  إلا ناذرا بظواهر دينية يومية مرتبطة بعموم الناس كالصلاة، اللباس، اختيار الشريك، والقروض المصرفية. وتحاول هذه المقالة إبراز أهمية دراسة التدين في مرتبطة بعموم الناس كالصلاة، اللباس، اختيار الشريك، والقروض المصرفية. وتحاول هذه المقالة إبراز أهمية دراسة التدين في


علاقته بالمعرفة المشتركة والنقص الذي قد يعتري التحليل الذي يقتصر على خطاب المختصين، علماء كانوا أو أيديولوجيين. لا نجد أي تعارض بين دراستي التدين والاستعمالات الأيديولوجية لدين ما. لهذا الغرض نقترح بعدا  آخر ينطلق ويشدد على دراسة المعرفة المشتركة من دون إغفال علاقاتها ًبالاستعمال الأيديولوجي للدين.
Etude de l'articulation religiosité, idéologie et connaissance commune
Religion, ideology and common knowledge.

The front-line employees of the bank interact with the majority of customers and generally handle a wide range of banking transactions. It is common knowledge that customer satisfaction mainly depends on the process of service delivery and less on its outcome. The above ascertainments highlight the importance of the initiation of Internal Marketing and Market Orientation in a bank institution.

Contemporary epistemology has explored the notion of a hinge commitment as set out in Wittgenstein's final notebooks, published as On Certainty. These are usually understood as essentially groundless certainties that provide the necessary framework within which rational evaluations can take place. John Greco has recently offered a striking account of hinge commitments as a distinctive kind of knowledge that he calls 'common knowledge'. According to Greco, this is knowledge that members of the community get to have without incurring any epistemic burden, and as such is fundamentally different from other kinds of knowledge. I offer a critique of Greco's proposal. While I agree that there is a variety of knowledge that counts as common knowledge, I contend that it is not to be understood as knowledge that one gets for free as Greco suggests. Moreover, I argue that our hinge commitments do not count as common knowledge-either in Greco's sense of the term or in the alternative manner that I set out-because properly understood they are not in the market for knowledge at all. In defence of this claim, I suggest that Greco's conception of a hinge commitment is both missing some crucial elements and also (relatedly) too broad in its extension, in that it encompasses both instances of common knowledge (in my sense of the term) and hinge commitments proper. 1 Introductory remarks John Greco's work is always a delight to read: pellucid and full of insight. It is thus a pleasure to be invited to comment on his important contributions to contemporary epistemology as part of this volume. There are many topics where we agree, but obviously the most interesting topics are those where we don't. With that in mind, I want

I was born in Oslo, Norway, did my Ph. D. at UC Berkeley in California, and have worked at the National University of Singapore for 16 years. For the last few years, I have taught a class called &quot;Heavenly Mathematics & Cultural Astronomy&quot; ([3]). The first part of the course covers basic positional astronomy, focusing on what the Sun, the