Gender Wage Gap

The gender pay gap is about gender representation in roles that pay differently, and is about gender portrayal in jobs that pay in an unexpected way, and is not quite the same as equivalent compensation concerns. The gender pay gap is determined by taking the normal compensation for all females in an association, paying little mind to job or duties, and contrasting that with the normal pay for all guys in a similar association, paying little heed to job or obligations. The distinction in these two normal sums is the " gender pay gap." Paying ladies not as much as men for a similar activity, absolutely by virtue of their gender, is unlawful and is banned by correspondence enactment. It alludes to the gap between what is earned on normal by ladies and men dependent on normal gross hourly income of every single paid representative-not simply people doing likewise work, or with a similar encounter or working example. It doesn't demonstrate or distinguish separation or inclination or even a nonattendance of equivalent compensation for equivalent worth work. The next section reviews the theoretical and empirical literature analyzing gender wage differences. Section III describes the trends in gender wage gaps across countries and regions in this date. The fourth section presents how to close gender pay gap. The final section concludes with some thoughts on policy implications.

Discrimination against females is one of the most discussed topics in
economic literature. Discrimination shows itself in different stages of the
life in various levels from the household to economic sectors. Over the
past few years, some serious actions have been taken and several
resolutions were accepted by international organizations and countries.
However, only a few countries managed to achieve high level of gender
equality. Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Blinder-Oaxaca
decomposition methods author examines household survey dataset for
case of Azerbaijan, more clearly capital Baku. Baku is the main economic center of Azerbaijan and hosting nearly half of population. Research findings presents scientific evidence that there is a wage discrimination against women in Azerbaijan. Furthermore, it became clear that education attainment significantly affects gender wage gap and females do not face wage discrimination as their education level increases. Finally, results show that married females are more discriminated.

This paper examines the latest research on the digital skills crisis, focusing on the factors that contribute to digital exclusion. Through an extensive analysis of current literature on the digital divide, the authors discuss digital skills gaps, namely the exclusion of a sizeable part of the workforce from the digital market economy—and women in particular. Studies indicate that exclusion from the digital market is augmented and reinforced when combining the gender dimension with other exclusionary factors such as disability, age, race and socioeconomic background. Research confirms that the gender imbalance in ICT and related sectors persists today, despite decades of equal opportunity policies, legislation and government initiatives. Women are still underrepresented and digitally excluded and efforts to attract, recruit and retain girls and women in ICT and STEM seem to be failing, reinforcing the gender gaps: participation gap, pay gap, and leadership gap, a result of the deep-...

In this paper, we study how age, gender and education level affected earnings in the US in 1992 and how it changed in 2004. It is not an uncommon knowledge that a lot of work have been done on how age, gender and educational level affects earnings, however this work is peculiar in the sense that, we test theory and empirical work with randomly selected data. We find that as expected, earnings are positively related to age and educational level and earnings of females in both periods are significantly lower than their male counterparts. In addition, we find that earnings are significantly affected by age, gender and education in both periods under consideration.

This paper investigates the sensitivity of average wage gap decompositions to methods resting on different assumptions regarding  endogeneity of observed characteristics, sample selection into employment, and estimators' functional form.
Applying five distinct decomposition techniques to estimate the gender wage gap in the U.S.\ using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we find that the magnitudes of the wage gap components are generally not stable across methods. Furthermore, the definition of the observed characteristics matters: merely including their levels (as frequently seen in wage decompositions) entails smaller explained and larger unexplained components than when including both their levels and histories in the analysis. Given the sensitivity of our results, we advise caution when using wage decompositions for policy recommendations.

We investigate different techniques to assess the gender pay gap in five EU countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and United Kingdom), focusing on self-selection into market work. Results show that selectivity correction has an impact on both wage estimates and wage gap decomposition. If there is a positive correlation between the wage and the propensity to participate, the estimated pay

In this review article, I focus on the changing trends and main explanations of gender wage inequality in the United States. First, I briefly describe the most prominent trends in gender
wage inequality since the end of the 1970s. I then summarize theoretical explanations of these trends at both the individual level and the structural level. At the individual level, neoclassical human capital theory highlights the sharp increase in women’s educational attainment as the reason for the narrowing trend in the gender pay gap, while using the
gender differences in educational and work experience to explain the persistence of this gap. An emerging debate about the human capital explanation is whether the observed gender disparities in educational and work experiences are the result of individuals’ personal choices or the consequences of social construction. I subsequently numerate three main sociological theories—gendered socialization, statistical discrimination, and social capital—to show how social values, conventions, and systems shape individuals’ “free” choices. At the structural level, I emphasize the fundamental shift in the industrial structure and employment arrangements driven by the skill-biased technology change (SBTC) and globalization. I conclude this article by summarizing both the positive and the worrisome trends in gender wage inequality, and by outlining policy implications for achieving gender equity in the future development of the U.S. labor market.

This study focuses on gender segregation and its implications for the salaries assigned to male- and female-typed jobs. We used a between-subjects design to examine whether participants would assign different pay to 3 types of jobs wherein the actual responsibilities and duties carried out by men and women were the same, but the job was situated in either a traditionally masculine or traditionally feminine domain. We found pay differentials between jobs defined as “male” and “female,” which suggest that gender-based discrimination, arising from occupational stereotyping and the devaluation of the work typically done by women, influences salary allocation. The ways in which the results fit with contemporary theorizing about sexism and with the shifting standards model (Biernat, 1995, 2003) are discussed.

Abstract: Numerous studies and research have been conducted in order to identify the scenario of “glass ceiling” in women‟s career and ways to encounter this situation. Throughout the years, the world witnessed the advancement of women in career building and penetration into job that was conventionally dominated by men, however, based on several research and studies, this progression is somehow still limited and hindered by some sort of gender discrimination, and women does not exactly progressing to a level that they deserved to be. The paper address this gender discrimination under the three main issues that have been found and frequently reviewed in previous research, studies in relation to „glass ceiling‟. There are gender wage gap, gender/job segregation and barrier in promotion process. Subsequently, this study will show that these three issues are directly related to each other.

Keyword: Glass Ceiling, Glass Ceiling Effect, Women in Workforce, Gender Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Barrier in Promotion.

How are women entrepreneurs transforming and challenging traditional understandings of professional success in the 21st century, despite the multitasking whirlpool? What type of knowledge and skills are required in today's digital world to develop professionally and succeed as an entrepreneur? What are the major barriers to successful entrepreneurship preventing women from realizing their full potential or stopping them from even beginning an entrepreneurial career? A current literature review (2011-2019) on women's entrepreneurial initiatives, skills, characteristics, attributes, motives and leadership styles, documenting strategies for success and barriers confronted, indicates that not much has changed. Women entrepreneurs continue to face the multitasking whirlpool, along with the lack of financial resources, marketing skills and support services, including poor access to business networks, technology and digital markets. Despite the mass entry of women in exclusively male domains, glass ceilings have not been shattered. Then again, developed and developing nations have come to understand that women's entrepreneurial activities contribute to socioeconomic growth and utilizing the full potential of all human resources is essential for sustainable development. Studies of the 21st century-as those of the late 20th century-continue to spotlight gender gaps in entrepreneurship as well as the so-valued career-family balance, while still arguing that further research is needed. They also agree that successful entrepreneurship requires digital skills along with the drive for innovation. The successful entrepreneur, or to use a term and concept coined by Elias G. Carayannis and McDonald R. Stewart (2013), the "distinguished entrepreneur" regardless of gender, is an innovator; a visionary; a person who predicts and shapes the future; takes initiatives; accepts change, risk and failure; learns from it; and sees what others do not see, among other things. Accordingly, this study presents snapshots of lives changed and empowered. It includes the work and narratives of "distinguished" (Carayannis & Stewart 2013) women entrepreneurs who have made a difference. Is it not time to shed some light on inspirational role models, especially those who are excelling in the startup world, the Blue Economy and the Silver Economy?

KEYWORDS: Women, Entrepreneurship, Multitasking whirlpool, Gender participation gap, Gender pay gap, Gender leadership gap, Work–life balance, Digital skills, Degendering

El capítulo aborda el análisis de la brecha de género en el trabajo profesional cualificado, considerando los principales indicadores de la estructura del trabajo profesional en España. Sin embargo, dado que la igualdad de género no puede formularse sólo en términos de igual participación e igual éxito en el mercado de trabajo, sino también en la eliminación de la segregación existente en el inicio y a lo largo de las trayectorias profesionales, en este capítulo se contemplarán también los datos de ingreso a las distintas titulaciones y el desarrollo posterior de las carreras profesionales de hombres y mujeres, atendiendo a algunos indicadores del mercado de trabajo y a la brecha salarial (segregación vertical), pero considerando asimismo las diferentes condiciones laborales y familiares.

This is a written version of a talk which I gave at the Scottish Family Party Annual conference in 2020. I explore how men and women have different relationships to  patterns of employment and unemployment and the structuring of taxes and benefits. The way in which patterns of employment and unemployment and access to benefits are shaped by gender has a direct impact on patterns of family formation. I conclude with some proposals about how the family can be strengthened.

У овом чланку
аутор истражује
положај
жена
на тржишту
рада
у Србији.
Посебна
пажња
је усмерена
на положај
жена
у запослености
и незапослености,
и положају
жена
на тржишту
рада
у неким
другим
друштвима
у транзицији.
Иако је уопште
било
много
позитивних
промена
у положају
жена
на тржишту
рада
дугорочно
посматрано,
посебно
у пред-транзиционом
периоду,
многи
показатељи
указују
да је положај
жена
још лошији
у односу
на мушкарце:
удео жена
у економској
активности
и запослености
је мањи,
стопа
незапослености
жена
је већа,
жене
просечно
дуже
чекају
запослење,
концентрација
жена
у типично
женским
професијама
је још веома
висока.
Главна
теза
је доказана:
жене
у друштву
у транзицији
су маргинализоване
и фрагментиране.
Оне још
морају
да усклађују
породичне
обавезе
са радним
обавезама.
Ново
радно
законодавство
и промене
у здравственом,
пензионом
систему
и социјалној
сигурности
воде
ка не-стандардном
запошљавању
жена
и нижим
зарадама.

""In the face of rapid increases in women’s labour force participation and educational attainment, gender disparities in other measures of labour force outcomes in Indonesia remain persistent. Even for the tertiary educated sub-group of the urban population, sizeable gender disparities in hourly wage, total wage, and occupational segregation continue to materialize.  This thesis is an extension of the existing international literature that points to traditional gender roles in marriage as the main supply-side drivers of the persistent gender gap in the labour market.

Instead of focusing on the gender gap in observable labour force outcomes, the primary objective of this thesis ventures beyond the labour market, and adopts a micro-level approach to examine the gender dimensions of labour market aspirations in the context of expectations of gender roles in marriage amongst university students in urban Indonesia. The focal argument in this thesis is that gendered labour market expectations showing women’s lower intended labour force attachment relative to men, are a reflection of the prevailing norms in urban Indonesia denoting women’s secondary economic role in marriage. 

This thesis employs both secondary data sources and primary data collected through fieldwork. First, to provide context to primary data collection, the study utilises secondary data mostly drawn from the Population Module of the 2000 Indonesian Census, a nationally representative cross-sectional data set compiled by the Central Bureau of Statistics, to illustrate the labour market outcomes of the tertiary educated urban population and of tertiary educated couples. Second, fieldwork incorporating survey and in-depth interviews was conducted in 7 universities in Jakarta and 5 universities in Makassar between February – August 2004. The main data collection tool, The University Students Survey 2004: Expectations of Career and Marital Life, was administered among senior university students in the city of Makassar (N=674) and Jakarta (N=1087).

The data collected through this research is argued to be of particular significance to the study of gender relations in Indonesia at a time when the country is undergoing a multifaceted transition:  (1) Economic development and the ongoing structural transformation of the economy and the labour market, (2) Political reforms and uncertainties following the fall of Soeharto, (3) Demographic transition in urban Southeast Asia denoting delayed age of first marriage and childbearing, and (4) Globalization and the emergence of an increasingly Western-dominated international culture in urban centres.

Drawing from the fieldwork findings, the study highlights that there is a preference towards dual-earner marriage among the students surveyed in both Jakarta and Makassar. However, despite the seemingly egalitarian outlook towards marriage nominated by both male and female respondents, their work expectations in the context of marriage continue to underline women’s position as secondary earners. The study finds gender and study sites are factors that differentiate the respondents’ occupational intentions and earnings expectations. Most importantly, in both study sites, female respondents’ intended labour market attachment, as proxied by preference to work in the coming years, is inferior to that of the male respondents. Furthermore, as expected, women’s gender role attitudes, and not men’s, are found to be significant predictors of future work preference. Such findings confirm that there is a persistent perception of male breadwinning responsibility in the students’ expectations. Analysis of in-depth interviews suggests that labour market expectations embody the entrenched socialisation and institutionalisation of gender roles in marriage. This thesis proposes that in societies where cultural values and social control remain highly regarded, such social conditioning affecting the interplay between marriage and labour market expectations should be noted in further inquiries on the gender gap in the labour market.
""

This study aims to measure the gender wage gap among millennial workers in Colombia and determine if there is a marked wage difference between millennial women and men. Further, this study analyzes whether millennial women face a glass ceiling, that is, if there is a larger gender wage gap among workers earning relatively high wages. The study data included a sample of 2,144 millennial workers employed in 11 organizations located in the five main cities of Colombia. Oaxaca–Blinder econometric methods of wage decomposition were used to calculate both raw and adjusted gender wage gaps. The latter results in estimating the gender wage gap while controlling for observable characteristics related to individual, family, and labor. The results show that millennial workers in Colombia face gender inequality in the labor market and that professional millennial women experience a distinct glass ceiling. The adjusted gender wage gap is 9.5 percent, and this gap increases with education level, increasing to nearly 14 percent among college-educated workers. This paper contributes to the literature on workplace discrimination and gender wage inequality for younger workers, and it is original in reviewing the gender pay gap in Colombia using a primary dataset. Most of the work in this area has been done mainly in the developed countries and this research add to the findings which had focused on those nations.

La autora critica la contradicción del Tribunal Constitucional en lo relacionado a la distribución de la anticoncepción oral de emergencia (AOE), más conocida como la píldora del día siguiente. Luego de recordar en qué consistió cada decisión, plantea interrogantes respecto a las consecuencias derivadas del cambio de criterio. Considera que esta situación ha llevado a incrementar las diferencias entre mujeres en materia de derechos sexuales y reproductivos, sobre la base de su poder adquisitivo.

Which public policies most effectively promote gender equality and how can they be realized internationally to support women on a global scale? I first argue that longer periods of paid paternity leave must be embraced to challenge the historical conception of women as the primary caregiver in a male-female partnership and to bring men into the private sphere at the important confluence of a couple's childfree and parental lives. In order to broadly achieve these policies, I turn to international law. Building off Charlesworth, Chinkin, and Wright's observation of the international legal order's gendered nature, I demonstrate that the International Labour Organization's (ILO) core labor standards, as they are today, reflect a gendered understanding of the labor market and are insufficient to support the basic needs of a working population that includes both men and women. I further argue that a reimagined set of these standards should be incorporated into a World Trade Organization (WTO) Trade-Related Agreement on Labor Standards that would impose substantive obligations on Member States. Such an agreement would be consistent with the WTO's historical embrace of " embedded liberalism " and could ultimately drive domestic policy transformations benefiting women worldwide.

One of the most striking developments in European labour markets over the last half-century has been the huge rise in women’s labour market participation. Both the lengthening of working lives and migration have further boosted the EU workforce despite unfavourable demographic trends. This report analyses how these large increases in labour supply have been distributed by sector, by occupation and across the wage distribution. The focus is in particular on workforce feminisation.
Although there are many more women at work now than a generation ago, women and men continue to work largely in different types of jobs. Fewer than one in five workers are in jobs where the workforce includes at least 40% of each gender. The increase in women’s employment has been seen largely in jobs where women already predominate. These include many of the sectors with the highest employment growth rates in developed economies over the last two generations and where, owing to demographic shifts, demand is likely to continue expanding in the years to come – health and residential care, for example. Structurally declining sectors – such as agriculture and manufacturing – on the other hand tend to be dominated by men. Women are also outperforming men educationally. Despite these relatively favourable developments, gender gaps in employment and wages have been contracting only gradually in recent years. This report seeks to make connections between changes in employment structure, sociodemographic trends and the persisting differences in labour market outcomes for men and women.

This paper studies the effect of working hours on vertical sex segregation using Belgian micro-data on promotions. Using Yun decompositions we find that more than 40 percent of the promotion gaps between men and women can be explained by gender differences in contract hours, overtime hours and occasional late work. The fact that women often work in sectors that offer less promotion possibilities is another important factor. The presence of children strongly affects the promotion chances of female employees, but not those of the male employees in our sample. This evidence supports theories that relate the availability of part-time work to the degree of vertical segregation in countries.

The death of Trayvon Martin sparked a series of responses across the U.S., including the birth of grassroots movements, Black Lives Matter (BLM), and state-sponsored initiatives such as My Brother’s Keeper (MBK). With the growing protests and concern over structural inequalities, the MBK initiative has gained significant attention and financial support. This article considers to what extent MBK misses a real opportunity to improve the lives of youth of color by recycling much of the problematic assumptions of its 1965 predecessor, the Moynihan Report. It seeks to raise key questions such as, to what extent does MBK reinforce structural inequalities by creating the conditions for an oppositional sexual politics? And in what ways does MBK serve as strategy of containment that restricts protest and ultimately societal transformation? Altogether, these concerns carry new significance in the context of continued protests against state-sanctioned violence targeting “Black lives” and “Black life.”

Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, the authors study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. They find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger

Despite the fact that women significantly outnumber men in the publishing industry, surveys and journalistic accounts reported from both the United States and the United Kingdom over the last 10 years tell us that women working in the industry are subjected to high rates of sexual harassment, a culture of circumscribed professional advancement, and a significant wage gap in favour of men. In this report, I explore how and why these features of gender inequity flourish in the publishing industry, and investigate to what extent the Canadian publishing industry is plagued by similar issues. Furthermore, I discuss the homogeneity of the publishing industry, and the ways in which women who aren’t able-bodied, straight, white, and cis-gendered face unique obstacles in the industry. The report closes with a discussion of recent shifts in the publishing industry which impact women and people from marginalized communities. In addition to highlighting a fundamental lack of robust data, I point to vital gaps in our understanding of intersectional gender inequity in the Canadian publishing industry, and make recommendations for further study.

Gender wage gap is an European and International socioeconomic phenomenon with a negative contribution to the efforts of social cohesion, integrity and creation of a solidarity economy. In national level, efforts for the identification and elimination of the gender pay gap have already started since 1970. Although, the phenomenon of the pay gap was been moderated, it still remains at levels above the European average. The analysis and confrontation of the multifactorial phenomenon requires a holistic approach. Women can actively contribute to employment and economic and social development through the improvement and enhancement of their skills and their general qualifications. However, their skills are often underestimated in respect to their payment and their hierarchy in the labour market. This paper studies the case of Greece by estimating the factors that generate the gender wage gap and the glass ceiling phenomenon through the analysis of micro data from 2010 Earnings Survey provided by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT). We estimate pooled quantile regressions as well as quantile regressions, and we carry out a decomposition analysis by applying the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique. The results reveal that the wage gap is mainly formed due to the discrimination of gender (men and women with the same characteristics receive different wages – female wages are significantly lower). Moreover, we approach the glass ceiling phenomenon which is mainly caused due to personal characteristics of individuals.

The gender pay-gap is not a new phenomenon in Brazil. Since the increase of female participation on the labor market, the gap has remained a persistent problem that has generated a wide range of studies on the topic. The Human Capital Theory argues that individuals' education and on-the-job experience are essential determinants on wage estimations. This assessment is not disputed in the literature however; there are still differences on wages that are not explained by the traditional variables suggested in the theory. These differences are usually attributed to active discrimination against women. This study suggests that discrimination is not just one reason behind the gap but instead, it is the most relevant reason since women have achieved equal or even higher productive characteristics as men and their ability on obtaining financial compensation for their work is being severely affected.

On January 1, 1912, a state law in Massachusetts went into effect that reduced the number of hours women and children under the age of 18 could work each week from 56 to 54. The loss of two hours’ pay was enough to make the workers’ meager wages too low to feed the family for a week. When the workers saw their reduced paychecks, they walked out on what became a violent strike between workers and the mill owners.