Lingua Franca

The adequate development of children is essential for the survival of a society. Dramatic negative changes in current societies have increased both the number of disadvantaged children and the severity of their disadvantage, thus threatening children's adequate development and the achievement of stability and productivity within their societies. Considerable scientific data support the idea that negative outcomes for children can be prevented. Effective prevention depends largely on early educational intervention, often supplemented by health and social services and parental involvement. This article (a) summarizes the key conclusions from 25 years of scientific inquiry, (b) acknowledges controversial issues in the scientific and policy arenas, (c) recommends practical strategies for enhancing children's everyday environments, and (d) proposes an integrative conceptual framework to guide future research and early educational intervention.

Onde não chegaram os portugueses com as suas caravelas?
Desde Ceuta, em Marrocos, conquistada em 1415, ao Japão, alcançado por acaso em 1542 (por três mercadores de peles, Francisco Zeimoto, António da Mota e António Peixoto, que faziam rota para a China mas sofreram naufrágio até às costas da ilha Tanega Shima – só sete anos depois a Companhia de Jesus começará a sua obra de conversão por Francisco Xavier), ao longo de apenas dois séculos e meio Portugal tocou todos os oceanos e correu verdadeiramente as sete partidas do mundo.
A Época dos Descobrimentos e das Explorações, porém, depois do seu declínio (marcado pelo surgir das potências holandesa e inglesa) continuou a sobreviver nos chamados « novos continentes ». Não quero referir-me só aos vestígios materiais deixados pela presença lusitana nas terras colonizadas – instalações civis e de marinha, fortalezas, desembarques e portos, etc. –, mas sim a um imenso património cultural e sonoro: o das línguas recém-nascidas (com respeito aos séculos dos descobrimentos) de base portuguesa – os crioulos...

In an increasingly globalized world in which people from a variety of different geographical and linguistic backgrounds must communicate with one another daily, the need for a global lingua franca is obvious.  The economic and cultural dominance of America over the last century, accompanied by the lingering influences of the colonial British Empire, have leveraged the position of English as the common language of international communication. However, as English continues to grow in importance among non-native speakers of the language, a number of questions arise: what are the current challenges to English’s position as a global lingua franca, who does it serve and can English exist as a global lingua franca without marginalizing the local languages of the countries into which it is introduced? This paper looks to examine the salient points and contradictory voices emerging in relation to English’s position as the global language.

The scope of this article is Prescriptive Grammar.
Any English user may need a quick reference concerning conditionals in general. However, many users have an incorrect idea that, when we use past perfect in the if clause, it is ALWAYS incorrect to use “would or would not + base form of verb” in the main clause.
Therefore, the objective of this article is:
1. to define CONDITIONAL (IF) sentences in general and their BASICs; and
2. to correct the incorrect idea that, when we use past perfect in the if clause, it is ALWAYS incorrect to use “would or would not + base form of verb” in the main clause. We use this pattern in MIXED CONDITIONAL.
Whether we use “would/wouldn’t + have + past participle” or “would/wouldn’t + base form of verb” depends on whether the event is a Third Conditional or Mixed Conditional event.

Nel capitolo si ripercorrono sinteticamente le vicende dell'italiano fuori d'Italia in età preunitaria. In particolare, si mettono in evidenza i diversi caratteri della sua fortuna da un lato nell'Europa continentale e in Inghilterra, dove l'afferma-zione dell'italiano si deve prevalentemente al prestigio della letteratura, delle arti e della musica italiane tra il Rinascimento e la prima Età moderna, dall'altro nel Mediterraneo, dove varietà italoromanze spesso di base non toscana conobbero una circolazione capillare tramite i vettori dapprima del commercio e poi, soprattutto nell'impero ottomano, della diplomazia e in genere della comunicazione sovranazio-nale tra le popolazioni locali e gli occidentali. In conclusione si esaminano i casi di alcune isole geograficamente vicine all'Italia (l'arcipelago delle Ionie, Malta e la Corsica), dove l'italiano fu non solo varietà di comunicazione scritta e parlata, ma anche, almeno fino alla metà dell'Ottocento, lingua ufficiale e di cultura.

This book is a first. Language Education Policy is a new field of study that establishes a cross section between educational policy and language policy studies. It inherits from an abundance of intellectual and methodological traditions while opening new perspectives that focus on the interface between policymaking and its enactment in a classroom or an educational setting. The study of the interface between the macro-policy level of the political stage and the micro-policies of education in practice implies a focus on how policy decisions are translated into regulations that affect the lives of people. 21 authors have contributed to this outstanding volume that situates the stakes in the new field of inquiry with examples in 14 countries.
"This essential book shows why language education policy will never work if it is top-down and ignores local contexts and stakeholders. It illustrates the fundamental importance of taking local contexts into consideration and actively engaging and empowering local stakeholders in the development and implementation of all language education policy. A better blueprint for successful language education policy would be hard to find."- Dr. Andy Kirkpatrick, Griffith University

An ethnographically revised linguistic landscape study can be used as a sensitive methodological tool for detecting the complexities of urban space in superdiverse areas. The data used in this book are from an inner-city neighborhood in Antwerp (Belgium), which has become superdiverse over the past decade and a half. Rather than analyzing the contemporary patterns in terms of synchronically juxtaposed 'pluralities' of scripts as indexes of cultural 'belonging', this new methodology enables us to historicize individual signs and complexes of signs, so that they begin to inform us of the multiple histories that coincide in superdiverse space. Multiplicity is thus replaced by complexity: nonlinear, multifiliar and stochastic patterns of presence, entitlement and power in social space.

Playlist of thousands of movies posted on YouTube (everything accessible in Spanish) with topic specific side links to resources to help interpret each movie. Introduction models creative learning strategies, specific browsing suggestions, and some SLA learning theory questions. This WORD doc is designed to help students develop a personalized life-long plan for learning Spanish. All hyperlinks in Vol. 3 are fresh, set down in spring of 2017.

Películas de YouTube anotadas, vol-4,issue-1, Mayo, 2019
    [Fonken & otros]

Estos días, YouTube is getting harder to surf. Its next up offerings are more commercialized, less local, fewer links to authentic, non-profit resources. 

Pues, quiero que hacer [conjunto] una nueva lista de pelis. Primero deben formar un grupo para ayudarnos y todos a buscar en YouTube.

1. ¿Qué haces tú para encontrar las pelis buenas? 
2. ¿Cuales son los recursos más impactante para aprender español?
3. ¿Qué otras preguntas tienes?…

Characteristics of the Arabic Lingua Franca spoken along the coast of the Red sea (Eritrea, including the Dahlak islands, and Djibouti).  It is the vehicular variety for people whose mother tongues are Afro-Semitic (Dahalik, Tigre) or Cushitic (Afar, Saho) languages.

Giorgio Maria Ciaceri was a Jesuit missionary from Sicily who spent about ten years in North Africa during the mid Nineteenth century. From his Jesuit center located near Algiers, he travelled all over Algeria and arrived until Tunis where he spent the last period of his journey. His travelogue, published in 1885–86, is almost unknown to scholarly research and is a very rich source for anthropological, ethnographical, historical, social, religious and linguistic information about the countries and the cultures he visited. The  present article deals with his travelogue and attempts to draw the attention to some aspects of his work and in particular to the linguistic issues that it contains.

Science and academic education are determined by discussion and scientific exchange across the borders of both languages and countries. Consequently, universities can be described as melting pots: places where, traditionally, different forms of multilingualism should be practiced. In academic contexts, however, English has become the most important lingua franca, so that internationalization and multilingual expertise are often understood to mean using English in teaching, research, tutoring and administrative communication. This paper will present an experiment aimed at implementing multilingualism in academic and scientific contexts through the means of linguistic mediation.

It is a heavily debated issue: To define language, which one is the controlling authority between the Descriptive Grammar (DG) and Prescriptive Grammar (PG)?

Observing those debates, it seems like the debaters make it unnecessarily complex. I think the logic in favor of the DG is pretty straightforward. And the objective of this paper is to explain in simple manner the reason that the DG is the dominating authority.

The PG is just a guideline that is unrelated to or merely coincides with the time of use. And it is the DG that defines exactly what the language is. In other words, simple is that, to evaluate a linguistic item for its current validity, we must inquire how the native speakers naturally (meaning popularly and consistently) use it at the time of the inquiry.

1950’li yıllarda Amerikalı dil bilimci Morris Swadesh, leksiko-istatistik yöntemler geliştirerek diller arasındaki akrabalığın oranını ve tarihini tespit etmek üzere anlamlarına göre bir dilde bulunması gereken temel sözcükleri belirleyerek listelemişti. Önce 215 ve daha sonra bizzat M. Swadesh’in kendisi tarafından 92 olarak belirlenmiş bu ‘temel sözcükler’ listesi bugüne kadar birçok dilin söz varlığını incelemek için yaygın olarak kullanılagelmiştir. Çeşitli açılardan tartışılan Swadesh’in bu listeleri, Türkiye Türkolojisinde bugüne kadar Köktürkçenin temel söz varlığı, Moğolca ile Türkçenin ilişkisi ve bazı çağdaş Türk yazı dilleri arasındaki ortak söz varlığı için kullanılmıştır. Türk dili tarihi içerisinde Osmanlı Türkçesinin; söz varlığı başta olmak üzere söz dizimi ve şekil bilgisine kadar birçok alanda başka dillerle ilişkilerin etkisinin görüldüğü ve bu yüzden de çoklu karakterdeki bir imparatorluk dili olduğu bilinmektedir. Çoklu karakterde bir dil olması nedeniyle de tarihî bir Türk yazı dili olmasına rağmen, birçoğu politik olan görüşlerle, gerekmediği kadar yerilmektedir. Osmanlıcanın bu çoklu karakterini yansıtan ve sadece alıntı sözleri değil, Türkçe sözleri de içeren, Fransız Thomas-Xavier Bianchi ve İngiliz James Redhouse gibi tanınmış Batılı şarkiyatçı ve sözlük yazarlarının eserleri, iki dilli sözlükler olmaları bakımından XIX. yüzyıl Osmanlıcasının söz varlığı için nispeten daha kapsamlı ve objektif sayılan eserlerdir. Bu bildiride bu türdeki başlıca iki dilli sözlüklere göre ve M. Swadesh’in belirlediği listeye dayanarak Osmanlı Türkçesinin söz varlığındaki ‘temel sözcükler’ ele alınmakta ve elde edilen liste üzerinde etimolojik ve tematik sınıflama ve değerlendirmeler yapılarak Osmanlı Türkçesinin karakteristik özellikleri hakkında sayısal sonuçlar elde edilmekte ve değerlendirilmektedir.

Stemming from real or seeming incompetence, the pragmatic failures L2 learners and LF speakers often commit may lead to stereotyping and negative labelling as a consequence of hearers' mindreading abilities and relevance-driven interpretation of communicative behaviour. Pragmatic incompetence may incite hearers to erroneously attribute beliefs, intentions or feelings to speakers because of lowered epistemic vigilance and to sustain a specific type of epistemic injustice, which, borrowing from social epistemology, is here labelled pragmatic-hermeneutical injustice. Pragmatic-hermeneutical injustices could be avoided or overcome if hearers' vigilance triggered a shift of processing strategy from naïve optimism to cautious optimism.

EN | The paper treats the popular concept of lingua franca. During the antiquity, such common language appeared as a natural process since the Middle Ages and Renaissance lingua franca becomes an important part in the policy of international relations. Оn concrete examples are followed by different aspects of lingua franca in the diplomatic communication during the Cold War and the most interesting example is the diplomatic correspondence between both German states, divided by ideological and geopolitical reasons.

BG | Статията третира популярното понятие лингва франка. През античността такъв общ език се налага по естествен път, от времето на средновековието и ренесанса лингва франка става важна част от политиката на междудържавните отношения. Чрез конкретни примери се проследяват различните аспекти на лингва франка в дипломатическата комуникация през епохата на Студената война и особено интересен пример в това отношение е дипломатическата кореспонденция на двете германски държави, разделени поради идеологически и геополитически причини.

The Swedish educational policy for upper secondary English, which took effect in 2011 and adopts a globalized perspective on language, is explored with respect to how skills and awareness related to local, national, and international roles of English are represented in policy documents.  A discourse analytic approach to language policy is used to offer a critical reading of the national syllabus for English, the accompanying guide and commentary on the syllabus, and the general upper secondary curriculum.  Analysis, informed by the work of Robert Phillipson, shows how English is represented with respect to the specific functions it serves as a lingua cultura (a language indexing socially situated value systems), a lingua emotiva (a language of popular culture and entertainment), a lingua academica (a language of research, teaching, and learning), a lingua economica (a language of market forces and globalization), and a lingua tyrannosaura (a language of power or threat).  The findings show that sociocultural and sociopolitical dimensions are identified in the syllabus for English to a greater extent than academic and professional/vocational dimensions of English which are treated in more detail in the general upper secondary curriculum and that the relationship between plurilingualism and English is minimally addressed but nascent.

Sinographic Sphere and the Issue of “Diglossia” in East Asia

This paper examines the role of literary Chinese in East Asia and the changing functions and positions of the vernacular languages. Paying particular attention to the boundaries of East Asia, this study explores how the cultural linguistic spaces have been shaped and transformed, actively engaging with the development of various vernaculars. Many societies in East Asia, including the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Tanguts, and the Khitans, commonly used Chinese scripts as their cosmopolitan official language while developing their own oral traditions. This linguistic situation of “diglossia” is comparable to that of Europe, where Latin functioned as the “lingua franca” in many European societies until the nation states grew dominant and the positions of their vernaculars became powerful enough to supersede the status of Latin. Despite the significant similarities between Chinese and Latin, however, the regional identities of East Asian societies have developed distinctively, with the vernacularizing of the cosmopolitan Chinese showing a clear difference from the situation in Europe.

본 논문은 동아시아 공동 문언어로서의 한자 한문의 언어 문제를 문화권이라는 개념을 중심으로 고찰하였다. 동아시아의 지역 구분은 기본적으로 동아시아의 많은 지역이 “양층적” 혹은 “다층적”인 언어 체계를 가지고 있었다는 특징을 기반으로 이루어지고 있다. 이들 지역 사회는 공통적으로 한자 한문이라는 문언적 표준어를 사용하고 있었으나, 또한 각각 개별적으로 구어적 발화 생활을 영위하고 있었고, 또 많은 경우 고유의 표기법을 고안하여 구어를 기록하고 있었다. 이러한 양층적 언어 상황은 유럽 지역의 라틴어와 민족 국가들의 구어와의 관계와 비견될 수 있다. 그러나 링구아 프랑카로서 기능하였던 라틴어에 비해 한자 한문의 동아시아에서의 지위는 그 문언적 성격이 훨씬 더 강했다는 점에서 크게 변별된다. 즉, 한문 문언어는 구어 기능이 현저히 떨어졌던 바, 동아시아 각 지역 사회는 유럽의 민족 국가와 비교하였을 때 보다 지역적 고유성 을 유지한 상태에서 발전하였다고 결론을 내릴 수 있다.

Lo studio intende tracciare un quadro storico-sociolinguistico dell'antica lingua franca, dalla sua nascita fino agli eventi sociali che ne hanno determinato l’estinzione. Più nel particolare, nella prima parte verranno discusse le spinose questioni terminologiche che evidenziano uno scarso accordo riguardo tanto all’oggetto di studio quanto alle denominazioni per designalo. Nella seconda parte verranno messi a fuoco i fattori storico-linguistici dai quali si sviluppa il pidgin e gli aspetti più chiaramente connessi alla sua variazione, proponendo inoltre un modello sociolinguistico che cercherà di riassumere gli elementi via via evidenziati. Infine, si affronteranno gli aspetti più peculiari e problematici del codice (come il complesso rapporto tra lingua lessificatrice e lingua di sostrato) a partire da una probabile ipotesi di genesi del pidgin.

http://www.istitutoeuroarabo.it/DM/la-lingua-franca-del-mediterraneo-aspetti-storici-e-prospettive-sociolinguistiche/

Among many teachers, students, and users, there exist two fundamentally confused issues that are as follows:
1. What is the standard version of English? and
2. How do I determine whether a language item is standard (correct)?
The instant article answers those two questions.

The standard version of English is its “koiné language” version that includes all versions that are:
1. naturally intelligible; and
2. acceptable under “simultaneously existing” or “current” descriptive or prescriptive grammars.

The procedure to determine the correctness of a language item is a two-step process, as follows:
1. First, we must determine whether it is correct under either DG or PG and, in doing so, the DG overrides. Where the item passes this test, we move on to the next step.
2. In case of a situation in which a specific context is given, we have to see whether it suits in the given context. On the other hand, if no context is given, we must evaluate whether it is suitable in any imaginable context.