Borrowing

This article analyses the male personal names of the Volzhsk Mari in the Bol’shoy Karamas Volost (nowadays territory of the Karamas and Sotnur rural settlements). The research was carried out on the basis of the census book of the Galitskiy doroga, 1678. The structure of anthroponymic formulas in the census book and linguistic origin of names of the inhabitants of Bol’shoy Karamas are examined in the article. The author also explores how the principle of naming children with the initial or final element identical to a parent’s name is reflected in the anthroponymy of Bol’shoy Karamas Volost.

This paper addresses the issue of the role of language similarity in language contact. The difficulties in measuring this variable are presented and commented. Contrary to the traditional claim that similarity facilitates transfer between languages, it is argued here that it may act diff erently depending on the types of transfer in language contact as delimitated in the language contact theory developed by Van Coetsem. The topic is discussed with respect to the contact of (Old) Church Slavonic with other Slavonic languages.

This monograph examines some of the aspects of language differentiation, code-switching and vocabulary acquisition in children exposed to multiple languages and briefly presents empirical observations of how the meaning of words is construed in multilingual environments.  The study observes two sibling toddlers (ages 5½ and 3½) growing up exposed to Slovak, German, English, Spanish and Italian.  Short dialogs between the children and the caregivers illustrate features of code-switching, code-mixing and borrowing as well as bilingual vocabulary acquisition, specifically identification of meaning, interference, transfer and borrowing, translation equivalents and errors bilingual children make in vocabulary usage.

It is acknowledged that our style of speaking changes according to a wide range of variables such as gender, setting, the age of both the addresser and the addressee, the conversation topic, and the aim of the interaction. These differences in style are noticeable in monolingual and multilingual speech communities. Yet, they are more observable in speech communities where two or more codes coexist. The linguistic situation in Algeria reflects a state of bilingualism because of the coexistence of Arabic and French. Nevertheless, like all Arab countries, it is characterized by diglossia i.e. the concomitance of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Algerian Arabic (AA), the former standing for the ‘high variety’ and the latter for the ‘low variety’. The two varieties are derived from the same source but are used to fulfil distinct functions that is, MSA is used in the domains of religion, literature, education and formal settings. AA, on the other hand, is used in informal settings, in eve...

Dans la présente contribution sur l’italianisme "tiramisu", nous avons essayé d’identifier le moment de son accueil dans les dictionnaires français (Larousse et Robert). Par le recours aux primitifs sémantiques universels de Wierzbicka (1996), nous avons montré comment les lexicographes français et italiens filtrent la Charge Culturelle Partagée (CCP, Galisson, 1991) attachée au référent de l’emprunt et intègrent une CCP qui relève de leur vision du monde et de leur culture d’appartenance. L’interrogation des deux corpus français et italien a permis de voir comment ces choix lexicographiques interagissent avec le processus de charge culturelle en cours dans les deux langues. D’une part, il semble que les locuteurs français et italiens soient en train d’ajouter simultanément une "Charge Interculturelle Partagée" aux unités lexicales tiramisù / tiramisu. D'autre part, les locuteurs français s’efforcent d’enrichir tiramisu de référents culturellement chargés qui pourront affecter le signifié et les définitions lexicographiques françaises à venir.

The success of construction contractors largely depends on the specific terms and the availability of sufficient funds for realizing planned projects. Financial issues in construction have been discussed since mid 1970s, yet no consensus about progress has been reached in the construction finance literature. A systematic analysis of 259 finance related studies in construction is undertaken to identify research trends, critical topics, and performance of journals and authors. To map the productivity in construction finance field, Scopus database was searched for the entire period for which this database provides online coverage. Results reveal that “financial health” category, in particular one group of studies aiming to monitor and assess the financial performance of construction organizations for broader strategic issues pervaded the construction finance research. However, notably the “identification of capital structure, determinants and financing instruments” category received le...

При изучении языковых контактов в специальной литературе процессам калькирования традиционно уделяется меньше внимания, чем лексическим заимствованиям. Несмотря на малоизученность данной проблемы, в русском языке последних десятилетий количество калькированных иноязычных слов и выражений заметно возрастает. В различных сферах жизни (в политической, экономической и компьютерной терминологии) преобладают сочетаемостные и семантические кальки, главным источником которых является американский вариант английского языка. В настоящей статье рассматриваются два типа калькированных английских терминов в современном русском языке: 1) кальки, содержащие зоологические названия и 2) кальки, включающие цветообозначения. Выбор этих двух лексических групп является не случайным, поскольку разнообразные наименования животных и названия цвета часто подвергаются метафорическому переосмыслению в процессе формирования отдельных терминов.

TÜRKÇE:
Türkiye Türkçesinin Avrupa topraklarının batı parçası Batı Rumeli hem bugün hem tarihte Türk dilinin komşu dillerle ve yabancı dillerle etkileştiği bir coğrafyadır. Bugün konuşulan Batı Rumeli Türk ağızlarını bütün karakteristik ve genel özellikleriyle incelemek için onun tarihini takip edebilmek, bu sahadaki Türkçeyi doğru şekilde yorumlayabilmek için “Batı Rumeli’de konuşulmuş olan Osmanlı Türkçesini” anlamak gereklidir. Bu çalışmada Batı Rumeli Türk ağızlarını ve dil etkileşimlerini daha doğru şekilde yorumlamak için anılan saha, geçmişiyle düşünülmeye çalışılmıştır. Burada Batı Rumeli’ye Osmanlı Türkçesi geçmişiyle bakılıp, konu hakkında bazı malzeme ve düşünceler sunulmuştur. Bunların tarihî ve çağdaş ağız araştırmalarındaki tartışmalara ve genişletmelere katkı olması amaçlanmıştır. Birkaç kıtaya yayılmış Osmanlı Türkçesi Avrupa’sının en uzun soluklu ve köklü kısmı Balkanlar olarak belirtilebilir. Osmanlı dönemi Türk dili, Rumeli’de yayılmış; resmiyet, eğitim, edebiyat, ticaret gibi birçok alanda kullanılmıştır. Türk İmparatorluğu’nun birkaç milyon kilometrekarelik geniş coğrafyasında konuşulmuş olan ağızların tespiti oldukça çetin bir iştir. Batı Rumeli’deki tarihî Türk ağızlarını tespit etmek için düşünülecek yöntem doğrultusunda günümüz ağızlarından hareketle tarihe gidilebilir. Bu mantıkla hazırlanan çalışmalar yöntemle beraber çeşitli malzemeler sunmuştur. Bugünden tarihe gitmek yanında, tarihî verilerle bugünkü ağza ulaşmaya çalışmak da düşünülebilir. Osmanlı Türkçesi ağız sahalarından Batı Rumeli’de Türkçe konuşulurken yazı dili de bütün düzey ve şekillerde kullanımdaydı. XVII. yüzyılda Rumeli’nin çeşitli yerlerinde yüzlerce edebî şahsiyet yetişmiştir. Çalışmada Batı Rumeli’deki çok sayıda yer ve Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi’nden dil malzemesi sunan ilgili kısımlara değinilmiştir. Tarihî metinlerin yorumlanmasındaki bazı meseleler tartışılarak Batı Rumeli’ye dair çeşitli fikirlerle sonuca ulaşılmıştır.

ENGLISH:
Western Rumelia, the western part of the European lands of Turkey Turkish, is a geography where the Turkish language interacts with neighbouring and foreign languages both today and in history. To analyse the Western Rumelian Turkish dialects with all their characteristics and general features, it is necessary to follow its history. To interpret the Turkish in this field correctly, it is necessary to understand the "spoken Ottoman Turkish in Western Rumelia". In this study, the area has been tried to be considered with its past for more accurately interpret the Western Rumelian Turkish dialects and language interactions. Here, Western Rumelia has been looked with Ottoman Turkish past, some materials and thoughts on the subject are presented. These are intended to contribute to discussions and expansions in historical and contemporary dialect studies. The longest-standing and rooted part of Ottoman Turkish’s Europe, which spread over several continents, can be stated as the Balkans. Ottoman period Turkish language spread in Rumelia; It has been used in many fields such as officialdom, education, literature, and commerce. Identifying the dialects spoken in the several million square kilometres vast geography of the Turkish Empire is a very difficult task. To determine the historical Turkish dialects in Western Rumelia, it is possible to go to history with today's dialects, within method. Studies prepared with this logic presented various materials along with the method. In addition to going from today to history, it is also possible to try to reach today's dialect with historical data. While Turkish was spoken in Western Rumelia, one of the dialect areas of Ottoman Turkish, the written language was in use at all levels and forms. In the 17th century, hundreds of literary figures grew up in various parts of Rumelia. In the study, many places in Western Rumelia and the relevant parts of Evliya Çelebi's Seyahatname that provide language material are mentioned. By discussing some issues in the interpretation of historical texts, various ideas about Western Rumelia were reached.

The paper aims to seek evidence for foreign models on term-formation in anatomical names. We are experiencing a “paradigm shift” in scientific communication. English is used as the international language of science, replacing Latin, the lingua franca in the Middle Ages, which has survived in scientific terminology. Could English dethrone Latin in such a conservative science as anatomy? We supply a few examples of Hungarian anatomical names applied in clinical practice originating from English models, particularly the acronym LAD in cardiac anatomy and lexical innovations in metaphors for socket of hip bone. We emphasize the importance of calques as the most effective method in term-formation.

Like biological species, languages change over time. As noted by Darwin, there are many parallels between language evolution and biological evolution. Insights into these parallels have also undergone change in the past 150 years. Just like genes, words change over time, and language evolution can be likened to genome evolution accordingly, but what kind of evolution? There are fundamental differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic evolution. In the former, natural variation entails the gradual accumulation of minor mutations in alleles. In the latter, lateral gene transfer is an integral mechanism of natural variation. The study of language evolution using biological methods has attracted much interest of late, most approaches focusing on language tree construction. These approaches may underestimate the important role that borrowing plays in language evolution. Network approaches that were originally designed to study lateral gene transfer may provide more realistic insights into the complexities of language evolution.Editor's suggested further reading in BioEssays Linguistic evidence supports date for Homeric epics AbstractLike biological species, languages change over time. As noted by Darwin, there are many parallels between language evolution and biological evolution. Insights into these parallels have also undergone change in the past 150 years. Just like genes, words change over time, and language evolution can be likened to genome evolution accordingly, but what kind of evolution? There are fundamental differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic evolution. In the former, natural variation entails the gradual accumulation of minor mutations in alleles. In the latter, lateral gene transfer is an integral mechanism of natural variation. The study of language evolution using biological methods has attracted much interest of late, most approaches focusing on language tree construction. These approaches may underestimate the important role that borrowing plays in language evolution. Network approaches that were originally designed to study lateral gene transfer may provide more realistic insights into the complexities of language evolution.Editor's suggested further reading in BioEssays Linguistic evidence supports date for Homeric epics Abstract

The research presents linguistic aspects of the process of French borrowing, its main extralinguistic reasons and key stages, and other French borrowings that were adopted into the English language in the course of its development. Particular attention is paid to the definitions of borrowing as a lexicological phenomenon offered on account of various scholars and based on several lexicographic resources. The article also focuses on numerous French borrowings in contemporary English, their grammatical and structural nature. The suggested classification of the distinguished linguistic units is given after a Spanish linguist Capuz. The article includes the general outline on the subject of borrowings, various aspects of loan classifications. The core part of the research was the typology of linguistic borrowings, like formal, morphological, semantic, lexical, syntactic, phraseological, and pragmatic borrowings. The authors analyzed the most important periods in history, like Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. All periods can be characterized through means of typical for them words. In the course of analysis, the following types of French borrowings have been established: formal, morphological, semantic, lexical, syntactic, and phraseological. The English vocabulary stock was compiled from different semantic fields and historical periods, starting from the Old up to Present Day English.

In this paper, I examine the borrowing of Romance words in Griko and Romance and Turkish words in Cretan. I investigate how easy borrowing can be of a particular lexical category as well as the language contact-factors affecting the process. I propose a borrowability scale (nouns > verbs > adjectives > adverbs) for the two dialectal varieties and with the use of statistics I show that certain words are relatively easy to be borrowed. Finally, I argue that the borrowing of lexical material depends not only on external factors (e.g. the intensity of contact) but also on intralinguistic ones such as the typological distance and the structural compatibility of the systems in contact.

“I vanni occulti: Sonatas, Op. 2 by G. F. Handel, between lyricism and fury”. Notas musicológicas para el CD Georg Friedrich Händel. Trio Sonatas op. 2. Al Ayre Español, Eduardo López Banzo, director. Challenge Records, CC72797, Amersfoort (Holanda), 2019, pp. 6-10 (inglés) y pp. 17-21 (español). //

Under the title I vanni occulti, ensemble Al Ayre Español, led by maestro Eduardo López Banzo, offers us its personal vision of Handel’s Sonatas Op. 2. The phrase comes from the oratorio Il trionfo del tempo e del disinganno (The Triumph of Time and Disillusion, 1707). The reference to this aria is not anecdotal, because Sonata No. 1 in this Op. 2 contains references to this music — an aspect that, hardly surprisingly, constitutes a characteristic element of the composition technique of the maestro from Halle. //

Over the course of his life, Handel composed 20 trio sonatas, 12 of which were published in London in two different collections: six sonatas were published in 1733 as Op. 2 (HWV 386–391) and another seven printed in 1739 as Op. 5 (HWV 396–402). In a disguised allusion to the vanitas allegory and the fleeting passage of time, Al Ayre Español presents, just three years after its recording of Op. 5 [Challenge Classics, CC72663], an introspective version of Op. 2, which completes and, at the same time, complements the group’s first rendition of Handel’s trio sonatas. The two recordings form a single project that offers the listener a passionate and impassioned, southern and Mediterranean version of this exquisite chamber music. This version is marked by the emergence, with particular expressive intensity, of the two aesthetic poles present in the chamber music universe of Handel (and of López Banzo himself): the most contained lyricism combined with the most explosive fury.

The study of language contact has progressed since the earliest work of Haugen and Weireich in the early fifties. In many situations of languages in contact, constituents of one language can be found with the constituents of another language in a number of linguistic phenomena, namely lexical borrowing, transferring, interference, calquing, diffusion, reflexification, codeswitching and codemixing, etc. (Ennamalai 1989:48). Codeswitching and codemixing are the two linguistic phenomena claimed to be the most prevalent and common modes of interaction among bilingual speakers. The earliest definition of codeswitching dates back to Weinreich (1953), who defines bilingual people as individuals who switch “from one language to the other according to appropriate changes in speech situation”. (Naseh 1997: 202). In recent literature, there has been some variation in defining this term in comparison to codemixing. Muysken (2000:1) refers to codswitching as “the rapid succession of several lang...

This book is an innovative contribution to contact linguistics as it presents a rarely studied but sizeable diaspora language community in contact with five
languages – English, German, Italian, Norwegian and Spanish – across four continents. Foregrounded by diachronic descriptions of heritage Croatian in long-standing minority communities, the book presents synchronically based studies of the speech of different generations of diaspora speakers. Croatian offers excellent scope as a base language to examine how lexical and morpho-structural innovations occur in a highly inflective Slavic language where external influence from Germanic and Romance languages appears evident. The possibility of internal factors is also addressed and interpretive models of language change are drawn on.

Vodou’s rites and the sacred songs that are sung in the course of their services are in Haitian Creole but they contain many lexical items that stem from West African languages like Fon, Yoruba, Ewe, and Igbo, in addition to West Central African languages like Kikongo. Lexical items with an African origin in Haitian Vodou form a significant part of the religion’s lexicon. The identification of the African lexical sources of the religion allows for hypotheses about the origins of Vodou traditions, sheds light on the history of the French slave trade, and provides clues about the ways in which Vodou took form in colonial Saint-Domingue and independent Haiti. The presence of diverse African cultural and linguistic influences in Haitian Vodou demonstrates the religion’s emergence as a system that syncretized various African traditions into a cohesive whole. This African religious fusion is especially strong in the Asogwe Vodou (Kanzo) tradition, whose stronghold is the Department of the West (i.e. Port-au-Prince and Léogâne) in Haiti. I attempt a preliminary reconstruction of the history of the syncretism of diverse African religious traditions and argue that the “African syncretism” represents the fundamental process that gave rise to Asogwe Vodou in Saint-Domingue and Haiti. I will suggest that the phenomenon of spirit migration within the rites of Haitian Vodou sheds light on the Founder Principle (Mufwene 1996): a few important spirits served in the rites that originate in the Bight of Benin have migrated into the rites of West Central African origin, a process that seems to have taken place in Haiti but draws from a deeper African tradition of spirit-migration between neighboring cultures. This process provides evidence that the religion’s founders from the Bight of Benin exerted a central influence even if pan-African religious inclusivity is a dynamic element of the system they created, Asogwe Vodou.

This  article  presents  the  new  concepts,  methods  and  perspectives  for  development  of  empruntology (considered as a science about loanwords and word borrowing). The name of this science provides from French term "emprunt" (launched in 1956 by Louis Deroy) with the suffix –(o)logy: Fr. emprunt + Gr. (o)logy (Fr. empruntologie; Rus. емпрунтология; It. empruntolgia)

and Keywords This chapter focuses on a wide range of phenomena occurring under the heading of con tact-induced morphological change, including several degrees of morphological integra tion, non-integration (qua indeclinability or maintenance of original markers), and bor rowing. It also discusses three major types of mechanisms leading to morphological bor rowing: 'macro-mechanisms' are general psycholinguistic mechanisms of transfer con ceived in terms of source language vs. recipient language agentivity; 'meso-mechanisms' are conscious and unconscious techniques which are responsible for contact-induced lan guage change, such as 'Trojan horse structures'; 'micro-mechanisms' are local, concrete mechanisms, such as reborrowing and reanalysis. Cross-linguistic data are presented and discussed in light of the implications that contact-induced morphological change has for the theory of morphology.

This volume gathers together articles dealing with Finnic minority languages and language contacts. The first part presents topics focusing on phonology, morphology, morphosyntax, syntax as well as lexical relations. The second part of the book consists of non-peer-reviewed reports on archived and digital Finnic minority language materials as well as two field trip reports to Finnic-speaking or formerly Finnic-speaking areas. This collection is based on the work carried out during the project “Language change in multilingual Finnic”, funded by the Kone Foundation. Most articles are based on presentations given at a symposium organized at the XII International Congress for Finno-Ugric Studies in Oulu in August 2015.

This is an attempt to investigate the morphological modification in Arabic words borrowed from English and French. The 100 loanwords in the study are related to cars and transportation in Jordan. Eight words are of French origin. Loanwords are used as if they are Arabic words. The analysis of the data indicated that the most important changes in the morphological aspects of the loanwords occur in gender, number, possession, word-formation and the definite article. The paper suggested further research for loanwords recently entered Arabic via communication technology.

[PT] O trabalho apresenta um panorama do léxico português, abordando diferentes questões pertinentes à análise lexical: relações entre léxico e gramática; variedades do léxico português (língua comum, línguas técnicas, neologismos); composição do léxico português (fundo latino, empréstimos greco-latinos, empréstimos de outras línguas).

[EN]  In this work, an overview of the Portuguese lexis is presented from the perspective of differet questions concerning lexical analysis: the refation between lexis and grammar; varieties of the Portuguese lexis (common language, technical languages, neologisms); the composition of the Portuguese lexis (Latin background, borrowings from Latin and Greek, borrowings from the other languages).

Türk ulusu tarih boyunca komşuluk, savaş, siyaset, ticaret gibi nedenlerle birçok ulusla ilişkiye girmiş, bunun sonucu olarak Türkçe bu ulusların dilleriyle hem sözcük hem de dil bilgisi alışverişinde bulunmuştur. Türkçenin bu dillerden yaptığı alıntılar üzerine bugün birçok kültürel ve dil bilimsel araştırma mevcuttur, ancak diğer dillere verintiler üzerine yapılan çalışmalar sayıca çok azdır. Oysaki Türkçe, köklü ve zengin bir dil olarak birçok dile yüksek sayıda sözcük vermiştir. Savaş, bürokrasi, göç gibi nedenlerle Alman ulusuyla girilen ilişkiler sonucunda Almancaya da sözcük veren bir dil olmuştur. Bu sözcüklerin büyük çoğunluğu Türk kültürünün ürünleridir. Ancak iki ulus arasındaki ilişkilerin yoğun olmaması, Türkçenin bu dile verintilerini olumsuz yönde etkilemiştir.
Bu çalışmada Türk ve Alman uluslarının ilişkileri ve Türkçenin Almancaya verintilerinin nedenleri kısaca incelendikten sonra çeşitli sözlük ve yazılar taranarak Almancada bulunan Türkçe sözcükler belirlenmiş ve bu sözcüklerin sınıflandırması yapılmıştır. Sözcüklerin belirlenmesi için, Almancanın önemli sözlükleri arasında sayılan Duden Universalwörterbuch, Großes Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache ve Wahrigfremdwörterlexion gibi sözlüklerin yanı sıra Türkçe Verintiler Sözlüğü ve konuyla ilgili bazı yazılar taranmıştır. Sözcüklerin Türkçe özgün biçimi Türk Dil Kurumunun sözlüklerinden alınmış, bu sözlüklerde bulunmayan sözcükler için ise sözcüğün Almanca sözlüklerdeki köken bilgisi ya da Türkçe Verintiler Sözlüğü’ndeki biçimi kullanılmıştır. Aynı sözcükten gelen türeme ve birleşik sözcükler tek maddede toplanmıştır. Ayrıca çalışmada Türkiye Türkçesinin yanı sıra diğer Türk lehçeleri de temel alınmış, böylelikle verintilerin bir bütün olarak incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır.

As mobile phones become more and more commonplace in communities across Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin is developing linguistic resources to talk about how they work and how they are used. This paper uses recorded interviews with Tok Pisin  speakers from across the country to analyse the emerging discourse about mobile phones, investigating lexical, grammatical and semantic innovations and the degree to which they are entrenched in spoken language. These innovations are frequently based on English, and include both loanwords and loan-based creations; both material and structural borrowing; and both code-switching and true borrowing. The analysis is used to evaluate the state of Tok Pisin in response to new technology, and suggest recommendations for future Tok Pisin dictionary projects.

A prevailing issue of debate in language contact studies involves the borrowability of various lexical and free grammatical categories. In this MA Thesis (a) I examine the borrowing of different lexical and free functional words, (b) I investigate the reliability of well-known borrowability scales, like those that have been formulated by Haugen (1950), Muysken (1981), Matras (2007), etc, and (c) I examine the factors that determine the borrowing process.

For this purpose, I examine data from the Modern Greek Dialects. More specifically, I examine the borrowing of (a) Romance words in Griko, (b) Turkish words in Cappadocian, and (c) both Romance and Turkish words in Cretan.

I investigate how easy the borrowing of a particular lexical and free functional word category can be as well as the language-contact factors affecting the process. I propose a common borrowability scale for the lexical categories (nouns > verbs > adjectives > adverbs) for all of the dialectal varieties that I have studied, and I show that certain words are relatively easy to be borrowed.

My main findings show that no absolute generalization can be drawn within the language contact domain. The intensity of contact factor (Thomason & Kaufman, 1988; Thomason, 2001) seems to be the key factor in explaining the split between lexical and structural borrowing. It explains why, for example, both in Griko and Cappadocian, where bilingualism and borrowing is vastly extensive, free-functional-words are borrowed with ease, whereas in Cretan, where the level of bilingualism is obviously less extensive, the borrowing of free-functional-words is extremely restricted.

Moreover, the differentiation between the borrowing of free-functional words in Griko versus that in Cappadocian shows that borrowing depends not only on external factors (e.g. the intensity of contact) but also on intralinguistic factors such as the typological distance and the structural (in)compatibility of the systems in contact. A concrete example is the absence of borrowed prepositions in Cappadocian due to Turkish containing only postpositions.

As words are bearer of culture, and loanwords in particular are its ¿ambassadors¿ into recipient languages, borrowing may also be viewed as a gauge of cultural exchange. The present study begins from the observation that, although borrowing is theoretically a two-way phenomenon, it usually displays an evident ¿directionality¿ from the higher language into the lower language: two statuses assigned by socio-historical factors. The aim of this research is to investigate lexical borrowing as a sociolinguistic phenomenon with a focus on the language-contact between Chinese and English: for this reason a thorough definition of borrowing is given in the first chapter, beginning with a description of the setting of language-contact, which is the prerequisite for borrowing. We then give a definition of borrowing itself, as characterised by the integration of loanwords in the phonological and grammatical system of the recipient language, of the strategies through which a word is borrowed, and of borrowing in contrast to code-switching. We then delve into the linguistic and social constraints on borrowing, and finally into the very motivations underlying such process, explaining that need is only a part of them, and social prestige also plays a key role. In chapter 2 we move to Chinese-English contact, summarising its long history, stretching through approximately two millennia of contact. A relationship which evolved from commercial to cultural, experiencing a military phase too, involving Chinese emigration towards anglophone countries and the unstable role of English as a foreign language in China. Bilingualism in Chinese and English was an extremely rare phenomenon when direct contact was first established in the seventeenth century, whereas it is an increasingly spreading (and demanded) skill today, fostering language-contact and borrowing between the two languages. In chapter 3 we combine theories and date given in the first two chapters, arguing that as the history of their contact was outlined, Chinese is probably to be labelled as the subject language, and English as the dominant one, at least since the First Opium War (1840). After a description of Chinese main varieties, we investigate the channels, borrowing strategies and patterns of integration through which Chinese loanwords entered the English lexicon. We then focus on some sociolinguistic features of Chinese-English contact, emphasising the emergence of a correlation between the nature of such contact and the characteristics of intervening borrowing in certain historical periods. Some interesting correlation between certain semantic fields and the borrowing from certain Chinese dialects does also clearly emerge. In the last chapter, we analyse a list of about one hundred Chinese loanwords which were found widely accepted in general English in a study carried out in 1988. We investigate them diachronically by means of five etymological and three general dictionaries published over the century before the study, thus trying to find when these loanwords were ¿accepted¿ in general English, if their etymology was already recorded as Chinese, and if (and when) an indication of their source-dialect was also given. The aim of this research is to investigate the process and stages through which borrowing occurs in relation to the social prestige attached to the languages (and dialects) involved. By means of a diachronic study, we also try to predict future trends of such phenomenon.

The purpose of this study was to examine the Turkish loanwords in English language whether they are common or archaic. Loanwords (can also be spelled loan words or loan-words) are words adobted by the speakers of one language from a different language. Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Loanwords can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, that more words go from one side to the other. English language has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest. This study extendedly lists of Turkish loanwords which are used in English language.

Cette thèse s'inscrit dans la recherche sur les effets du contact des langues en contexte plurilingue. Nous sommes partie de l'hypothèse selon laquelle la langue française en présence utilisée au Maroc est sujette à l'influence de l'anglais, à l'instar du français de France. Nous avons également supposé que la langue française pratiquée dans le contexte sociolinguistique marocain subit l'influence des langues locales. Notre recherche vise à démontrer et illustrer les interactions linguistiques qui caractérisent une situation sociolinguistique complexe, ainsi que la tendance générale d’emprunt à la langue anglaise. Nous avons associé les méthodes de la linguistique de corpus, de la sociolinguistique ainsi que celle de l’étude des emprunts pour former un cadre méthodologique approprié à cette recherche.
En nous fondant sur un corpus d’une année d’un quotidien d'expression française, nous avons mis en évidence que les influences se manifestent sous la forme d'emprunts et d'alternance codique. L’examen du corpus révèle les parts détenues par l’anglais, l’arabe standard et l’arabe dialectal marocain dans le français d'usage au Maroc. Nous y analysons la façon dont les journalistes empruntent et alternent avec les langues citées. Les résultats tirés du corpus nous ont permis de dresser une typologie et une analyse de l’intégration morphosyntaxique et discursive des emprunts et des manifestations d’alternance codique en français. Est traitée, par ailleurs, la question des motivations du recours aux procédés d'emprunts et d'alternance codique : nous démontrons que les choix de langue constituent souvent des stratégies communicatives, notamment lors de l’alternance français-arabe marocain. Les résultats confirment ce que les chercheurs sur le bilinguisme ont constaté, concernant le mélange des langues induit par l’état de bilinguisme. Nous observons que les journalistes font figurer à la fois le « local », par l’emploi d’arabismes et l’alternance codique avec l’arabe, et « l’international », à travers les nombreux anglicismes qu’ils utilisent.

The present research work is set in the context of language contact in a multilingual environment. Our basic assumption was that the French language in Morocco is influenced by English, as it is in France, but it was also assumed that the French language in Morocco is influenced by local languages. This research aims to demonstrate and illustrate the linguistic interactions in a complex sociolinguistic context, along with the general tendency to borrow lexical material from English. Corpus linguistic, sociolinguistic and borrowing studies methods were drawn on to form an appropriate methodological framework to achieve this objective.
The study is based on a large corpus composed of all the articles from one year of a French-language Moroccan newspaper. Borrowings and codeswitching were focused on as traces of linguistic influences in this corpus. The analysis of the corpus shows the quantitative impact of English, standard Arabic and Moroccan Arabic on French as used in Morocco, highlighting the way journalists borrow words and switch between these languages. This analysis was then used to draw up a typology to study the integration of borrowings and codeswitching on the grammatical and discourse level. The question of the reasons for using borrowings and codeswitching was also addressed. It is shown that communicative strategies can be achieved by making specific language choices, especially when the journalist uses French-Moroccan Arabic codeswitching. The corpus data confirm the findings of research on bilingualism, about language mixing related to a bilingual situation. More precisely, it is observed that the journalists use “local” words and expressions, through arabisms and codeswitching with Arabic, while the high number of anglicisms indicates the presence of “international” items.

This paper deals with Modern English loan words, i.e. the loan words that entered English in the period from approximately 1500 to the present-day. Among them the most numerous are definitely Latin and French. The Latin language has been an inexhaustible source of borrowings since the early beginnings of English, while French became the most frequent source in the Middle English period. Thus, in the last five centuries both languages simply preserved their importance as greatest donors of loan words. Nevertheless, in its recent history English has borrowed from many other languages as well, such as Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, German, Dutch, Russian, Indian, Chinese, Australian, etc.

La mondialisation accélère les contacts de langues et uniformise les modes de vie et de pensée par-delà les frontières. Le présent ouvrage donne un aperçu, à travers différentes langues, de l’impact linguistique de ces phénomènes de mondialisation et de contacts sur les emprunts lexicaux et sur leurs conséquences sur le lexique des langues qui les importent ou en subissent les influences.

Les différentes contributions rassemblées ici s’intéressent à des emprunts (essentiellement à l’anglais) apparus récemment ainsi qu’aux éventuels néologismes créés comme équivalents (traductions, calques, synthèses néologiques) et en analysent la circulation. Les recherches, conduites sur une ou plusieurs langues (français et polonais mais aussi arabe, espagnol, italien et tchèque) dans des domaines sociétaux innovants, montrent des différences de réactivité des langues, ou plutôt de leurs locuteurs, face à ces emprunts : acceptation des emprunts tels quels, assimilation plus ou moins importante ou recherche d’équivalents, qu’il s’agisse de réactions spontanées ou du résultat de politiques d’aménagement linguistique.

The present study takes as a starting point the question of whether Proto-Turkic had an onset *h- or *p- and aims at reconstructing its consonantism. The answer to the initial question is searched for in the fourteen Turkic lexical loans of adjacent languages such as Mongolic, Kitan, Yeniseian, and Samoyedic. At first sight, the data provided by these loanwords seem ambiguous. However, once it is demonstrated that both the daughter languages of Proto-Turkic, namely Proto-Bulgar Turkic and Proto‑Common Turkic, had the historically unattested initials *d2- and *ń-, these data can be taken to point to the existence of *p- in these languages as well as in Proto-Turkic. The discussion is extended with the question of rhotacism and lambdacism. As regards the rhotacism, Proto-Turkic is assumed to have two rhotic consonants, phonologically denoted as */r1 r2/. The lambdacism, on the other hand, turns out to be a tougher problem. Based on several lexical borrowings into and from Turkic, a further consonant */t2/ is posited for Proto-Turkic. This consonant, originally of affricate and probably later of fricative pronunciation, yielded /š/ in Common Turkic and /l/ in Bulgar Turkic. Thus, the Proto-Turkic consonantism is reconstructed as having a series of consonants */t2 d2 r2/ that underwent serious changes in historical Turkic. Finally, */k2/ is added to this series to explain the correspondence of k- and vocalic onset between some Turco-Mongolic cognates. In addition, significant sound changes in the prehistory of Turkic are dated through external evidence.

Key words: Proto-Turkic, onset consonant, lexical borrowing, consonantism

On the origin of Czech farkaš (Abstract): Veleslavín’s Nomenclator quadrilinguis includes the Latin, Greek and German equivalents of Czech farkaš ‘postilena, ἵππουρις, Schwantzriem’. Jungmann’s dictionary describes the expression as functionally obsolete and gives its basis, i.e. Hungarian fark ‘tail’. Sulan sees the origin of the whole word in Hungarian farkvas. Machek refers to Sulan’s interpretation though he does not take the mentioned form under consideration. The compound farkvas from Hungarian farok, formerly fark ‘tail’ and vas ‘iron’ would mean the crupper was not made of leather but of iron. Hungarian farkas [fɒrkɒʃ] ‘crupper’ was most likely an adjective which was created from the noun fark ‘tail’ with the suffix -as. Instead of the expression farkas szíj ‘strap under the (horse’s) tail’ was simply used farkas, which in the course of time was substantivised and borrowed into the Czech language.

This monograph dicsusses phonetic, morphological and semantic features of the 'Altaic' Sprachbund (i.e. Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic) elements in Yeniseian languages (Kott, Assan, Arin, Pumpokol, Yugh and Ket), a rather heterogeneous language family traditionally classified as one of the 'Paleo-Siberian' language groups, that are not related to each other or to any other languages on the face of the planet. The present work is based on a database of approximately 230 Turkic and 70 Tungusic loanwords. A smaller number of loanwords are of Mongolic origin, which came through either the Siberian Turkic languages or the Tungusic Ewenki languages. There are clear linguistic criteria, which help to distinguish loanwords borrowed via Turkic or Tungusic and not directly from Mongolic languages. One of the main outcomes of this research is the establishment of the Yeniseian peculiar features in the Altaic loanwords. The phonetic criteria comprise the regular disappearance of vowel harmony, syncope, amalgamation, aphaeresis and metathesis. Besides, a separate group of lexemes represents hybrid words, i.e. the lexical elements where one element is Altaic and the other one is Yeniseian. This book presents a historical-etymological survey of a part of the Yeniseian lexicon, which provides an important part of the comparative database of Proto-Yeniseian reconstructions.

The volume contains papers by phraseologists from Europe and Asia, which were written within the framework of the project Intercontinental Dialogue on Phraseology conducted by the University of Bialystok in cooperation with Kwansei Gakuin University in Japan (2009-2011). The book consists of the following parts: Dialogue on Phraseology, Corpus Linguistics, Lexicography and Phraseology, Contrastive Linguistics, Translation and Phraseology, Cultural Studies, Education and Phraseology.

Poverty is one of the misfortunes that Allah has decreed to befall a specific human being or a family unit or a society as a trial to raise man's status and increase his hasanaat (good deeds). However, as a result of the impatience and perseverance of man, poverty affects man's beliefs and conduct.

Many people have taken on a debt so that they can fulfill the duty of upbringing children, helping husband and family to pay for living expenses whilst others waste contracted debt on avoidable expenses or what is not productive.

Dependent nations look to other sources of financing expenditures, hence incurring debt. Debt assists dependent nations to meet budgetary needs.

Does Islam against borrowing? No! In Islam, obtaining debt (without interest) is permissible but should not be undertaken except in cases of necessity. Fath al-Baari (4/547). And the correct way of lending is that mentioned by Allaah in the aayah on debt Q2:282-283.