Mountains

The Barkley Marathons is an infamously brutal endurance trail race, having only been completed by 15 runners in its 30-year history. It takes place in the rugged Appalachian Mountains of eastern Tennessee, is approximately 130 miles long, and must be completed in under 60 hours. Its rules follow a unique set of constraints specific to the contours of the local topology, to the history of incarceration in the area, and to the idiosyncratic aesthetics and ethics of the race's two founders.

Considered as a form of constraint-based endurance performance art (which it is admittedly not), the Barkley Marathons suggest a "found" approach to performance constraints: an approach that puts performance in a more direct and fine-grained relationship with the details (geological, topological, meteorological, botanical, human-historical, non-human-historical) of the world in which (and with which) the performance occurs. The race opens out onto the mountains at multiple scales, multiple speeds, and along multiple vectors; and in turn, these particular mountains are allowed to have their own specific, non-generic influence on the form and style of the event.

Innovation is a key element in reshaping the landscape of education in the countryside; but teachers assigned in the mountains know that the hurdles of mountain life demand something more than innovating if their pupils have to learn. Pupils have aspirations, but life in the mountains is hard. Thus, teachers must walk the extra mile to put pupils back to the classroom. This paper attempted to narrate the experiences of a group of graduate students at the Visayas State University (VSU) actively involved in the conduct of community outreach projects in the elementary schools in the remote/mountain barangays of Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines. During ocular visits, essential information were gathered through in-depth interviews with teachers, parents, pupils and barangay captains. Interviews focused on socioeconomic status of parents, school needs, nutritional condition and health habits of pupils, school population, etc. Profiling was important in deciding whether or not the school became the recipient of the outreach, since funding was completely dependent on the benevolence of private individuals, friends, graduate and college students who shared the advocacy of community service. For a while, the Rotary Club of Ormoc and the Phil. Carabao Center housed in VSU likewise extended their support. These humble undertakings started in 2015. Since then, the group had accomplished eight (8) outreach projects, demonstrating that charity, service and genuine concern for the needy are deeply rooted in the Filipino vein. Undeniably, poverty is anywhere in this country and children in remote or upland communities are very vulnerable victims. The lack of nutritious food, and, worse, the absence of it at times as well as other basic school needs has affected their health conditions and attendance in schools. Worst of all, poverty has depleted some children with the much needed parental love and nurturing that must have been accorded them on account of their tender age.

En este artículo se sostiene que el nombre original del Nevado de Toluca es Chicnauhtécatl, el autor lo sustenta presentado un estudio etnohistórico y arqueológico. Chicnauhtécatl, es un vocablo náhuatl que se traduce al español como "Señor Nueve", lo cual lo asocia a complejos simbolismo mesoamericanos.

This PhD in geography seeks to understand contemporary migration trends affecting rural areas of French middle mountains in particular with examples of Diois (Drôme), Morvan (Nièvre) and Séronais (Ariège), by mobilizing the north american concept of “amenity migration”, as key for a better understanding of on-going process. The first part (Chapter I, II and III) provides an overview of the mechanism of “rural renaissance” and the development of residential migration in rural areas of the middle mountains. The second part is devoted to a qualitative analysis of actors such migration (active, retired, living in precarious social and northern European migrants), their motivations and their installation criteria average mountain, while the third part (Chapter VII to IX) lies more in the context of the territories. It focuses on reshaping social space associated with these arrivals, both in a development perspective, but also as an attempt to take into account the elements of tension and weakening potential for local societies. Finally, it examines how those new stakes are accounted for particularly in terms of attractiveness by local rural policies.

Cette thèse de géographie s’attache à mieux comprendre les phénomènes migratoires contemporains affectant les espaces ruraux des moyennes montagnes françaises, en particulier au travers des exemples du Diois (Drôme), du Morvan (Nièvre) et du Séronais (Ariège), en mobilisant le concept nord américain d’« amenity migration » ou « migration d’agrément », comme clé de lecture des processus en cours. La première partie (chapitre I, II et III) constitue une présentation générale du mécanisme de « renaissance rurale » et du développement des « migrations résidentielles » dans les territoires ruraux de moyenne montagne. La seconde partie (chapitre IV à VII) est consacrée à une analyse qualitative des acteurs de ces migrations (actifs, retraités, en situation de fragilité sociale et migrants nord européens), de leurs motivations et de leurs critères d’installation en moyenne montagne, alors que la troisième partie (chapitre VIII à IX) se situe davantage dans l’optique des territoires. Elle s’attarde sur les recompositions socio spatiales liées à ces arrivées, à la fois dans une perspective de développement, mais aussi en tentant de prendre en compte les éléments de tension et de fragilisation potentielles pour les sociétés locales. Enfin, elle examine la prise en compte de ces nouveaux enjeux, notamment en termes d’attractivité territoriale, par les politiques d’accueil en milieu rural.

The famous philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) and the brilliant Russian painter Nicholas Roerich (1874-1947) have broadly reflected on the
topic of the mountain, conceived by them as a symbolical and hermeneutical figure. Roerich’s pictorial opus magnum is for the most part devoted to the representation of Asian mountains nature as long as Nietzsche’s poetical and philosophical perspective passes through the mountains, especially Alps, understanding them as pivotal figures of a philosophical thought. The essay will underline the “poetics of the mountains” in Nietzsche’s and Roerich’s work, showing that mountain represents the symbolical answer to the philosophical research of Nietzsche and to the artistic and metaphysical quest of Roerich.

A list of mountain passes and similar features extracted from the gazetteer "Irish Landscape Names".  Please consult the full document (also available at Mountain Views, www.mountainviews.ie | More | Resources) for the abbreviations of sources, symbols and conventions adopted.  The list was compiled during the month of June 2020 and comprises more than eighty Irish passes and cols, including both vehicular passes and pedestrian saddles.

In the vast high altitude rangelands of the Tibetan plateau, and of the surrounding mountain regions of Central Asia – from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan in the far west, to Mongolia and Bhutan in the east – yak husbandry has for millennia contributed to the sustenance and cultures of people living in these challenging, often marginal lands. Today, of the world’s estimated 14 million domestic yak, around 90% are found in China, 4% in Mongolia, and the rest are in the Himalayan and Central Asian countries (Wiener et al. 2003).

First domesticated around 10,000 years ago, most likely in the Changtang region of Tibet, yak provide many fundamentals necessary for both traditional and modern lifestyles, from meat and milk products, to fiber (for clothing and habitation), yak dung (for heating and cooking) and transportation. ...

Mountain rangelands in Asia constitute the most extensive high altitude pastoral regions worldwide. Other noteworthy zones exist in the Andes of South America, and in smaller isolated ranges or relatively high plateaus in Africa. There are also similarities with extensive rangelands and traditional resource-based livelihoods, such as practiced by Sami reindeer herders in cold northern climates. However, nowhere else in the world are high rangelands and nomadic pastoralism as extensive as on the vast Tibetan plateau and in the surrounding mountainous areas of the Himalayas and Central Asia.

En México, las cimas nevadas son excepcionales. En el Altiplano Central no hay más de tres montañas con hielos perennes y en invierno apenas una docena más se cubre por nevadas ocasionales; este paisaje fue sacralizado desde tiempos remotos. Recientemente surgió una arqueología especializada en esos agrestes parajes, la cual se conoce como “arqueología en alta montaña”, disciplina poco conocida que muestra cómo se desarrollaron los adoratorios en alturas que sobrepasan la posibilidad biológica de la supervivencia humana.

À la Renaissance, les Alpes occidentales sont un lieu « de nulle part », un espace à la fois rêvé et vécu par les hommes. De nombreuses sources renseignent sur les différents discours portant sur la montagne. D’un côté, les récits de voyage et les cartes anciennes traduisent l’émergence de regards exogènes de la part des humanistes et des soldats qui, lors de leurs traversées du massif, font l’apprentissage des réalités du terrain. D’un autre côté, les légendes et les discours princiers véhiculent des représentations tantôt terrifiantes, tantôt élogieuses d’un espace fantasmé par les autochtones, politisé par les souverains. Toutes ces sources poussent à reconsidérer la Renaissance comme une période de transition entre rêves et réalités, deux termes à mettre au pluriel tant les expériences et les pratiques dans les Alpes sont diverses. Par une approche plurielle – littéraire, culturelle, militaire et politique – de la montagne aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles, cet article entend montrer que les montagnes deviennent un espace faisant l’objet d’une appropriation à mesure que se construit un savoir géographie alpin, bien que persiste un imaginaire contredisant les pratiques empiriques du terrain.

The interpretation of “the Myth of the Abduction of Europa” and of the archaeogeography of the Messara region is based on approach of geomythology. More precisely, in the way with which myths are connected with the ancient context in order to reveal the relationship between the myths (i.e. the structure of religions) that the ancient inhabitants of each locale devised and the geo-environment in which they lived, inhabited and developed their culture. The geo-environment does not remain the same, but constantly changes. The restoration of Messara’s geo-environment from ancient times till today, on the one hand provides an alternative perspective of “the Myth of the Abduction of Europa” and on the other hand allows an understanding of the religious faith of the Minoans.
The dam constructed at the entrance of the ancient gorge of Messara was filled with the water of Geropotamos river and resulted in the creation of the “Great Sacred Lake”. Careful observation of the Messara landscape from a hill in the city of Festos reveals Psyloritis mountain laying towards the north which, when covered in snow resembles a white bull with small white horns, the “Great Sacred Lake” extending to the east and the majestic Asterousia Mountains with Kofinas (the Starlight) appearing to the south – southwest. These elements allow the demarcation of the sacred landscape of Messara into the bronze era and therefore provide an alternative reading of the “Myth of the Abduction of Europa” within this context. The dominance of the Minoans in the sea, resulted in the gradual spreading of the myth and consequently, of the name of Goddess Europa. Throughout the centuries and although the semantics changed, the name continued to spread, evolved to the name Europe and to today’s Europe.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(consort_of_Zeus)

This report provides the first map-based overview of environmental change in mountain regions and its implications for sustainable development. New global maps illustrate selected values of mountain ecosystems and many of the pressures that are causing environmental change. A range of case studies illustrate how environmental assessments can inform the sustainable development of mountain regions. Mountain environments cover 27 per cent of the earth's land surface and directly support 22 per cent of the people who live within them. Lowland people also depend on mountain environments for a wide range of goods and services, for example, water, energy, timber, biodiversity maintenance and opportunities for recreation and spiritual renewal. Mountain people face an environment where everyday physical demands are great, natural hazards are significant, and agricultural production is constrained.

Prof. Reiner (1825-1897) from Celovec and B. Lergetporer (1845-1910) from Bled, the authors of the first series of the landscape photographs of Carniola and other lands
http://www.collecta.si/o-prireditvi/arhiv/arhiv-2012/program-2012/predavanja-in-drazbe/

Der Olymp ist der höchste Berg Griechenlands und Sitz der antiken griechischen Götter. In der Mythologie ist er seit der Antike nahezu omnipräsent. Dabei wurde eine Vorstellung ausgeformt, die schillernd zwischen realem Berg und überweltlichem Göttersitz changiert. Die Idee des Göttersitzes wurde räumlich losgelöst und universell übertragbar. Achim Lichtenberger geht dem vielschichtigen Phänomen Olymp nach, indem er zunächst die menschlichen Imaginationen vom Berg beschreibt, sodann den Berg im geographischen Kontext skizziert und schließlich der Idee des Heiligen Berges in den gesamten Mittelmeerraum folgt. Dabei erweist sich der Olymp als ein Schlüsselzeugnis griechischer Kulturgeschichte, dessen Attraktivität und Vorbildlichkeit beispielhaft für griechische Kultur und Religion sind.

El halo divino que envuelve a la Matlalcueye no se ha disipado, nos sigue obsesionando, influye en nuestras memorias y alimenta nuestras emociones. Con sentimientos tan ancestrales como contemporáneos, son las fuerzas de la naturaleza quienes moldean  la imagen de lo divino a través de los tiempos, así pues la geografía de la Matlatlcueye es el telón de lo sagrado; Matlatlcueye no está circunscrita en si misma se diluye por contornos fluctuantes que se dispersan entre los valles y se inserta en la lejanía del horizonte, el pilar espiritual no está únicamente en la cúspide, encuentra múltiples ejes que se dispersan por cañadas, laderas y cuevas; la Matlatlcueye está más allá del espacio que ocupa y arremete con su silueta en el imaginario colectivo, forjando así una identidad social que fortalece la continuidad de la memoria histórica.

The international conference "Mountains: culture, landscapes and biodiversity"was held at the West Caspian University in Baku from may 10 to 12, 2019. Famous scientists from many countries came to the conference in the capital of Azerbaijan: Russia, Turkey, USA, Germany, great Britain, France, Holland, Italy, China, Indonesia, Iran, Georgia, Poland, Kazakhstan, etc. The theme of the conference is due to the fact that in recent years, mountain regions around the world have been subjected to severe pressure due to unlimited exploitation of resources (excessive mining, extensive agriculture, and a growing tourism industry that seems to know no borders). Such processes have a devastating impact on nature and life in the mountains. Against this background, the goal of the conference was to bring together scientists, ecologists, biologists, tourism experts and other interested specialists to discuss the problems of mountain territories and find creative solutions to overcome them. Topical issues of montology – the science of mountains – were discussed by scientists in four sections, reports were read out in English and Azerbaijani.

Preface to 2020 edition
The Irish language names of features situated in the Gaeltacht, wholly or partially, have now been highlighted in bold type.  Irish forms have been added for secondary peaks which do not have a separate name, e.g. Barr Trí gCom (mullach thoir thuaidh) for Baurtregaum NE Top, Cnoc na Ceachan (mullach i gcéin thoir theas) for Caha Far SE Top.  More than 80 passes and other similar mountain routes have been added to the list.  Numerous minor revisions, corrections and standardisations to ensure consistency of format have been carried out. 

Preface to 2019 edition
A selection of mountain ranges, peninsulas, headlands and islands has now
been added to the list, with information on the geographical features themselves
and on their names. 171 new entries have been added in this edition, making
1,261 entries in total. The ranges are mainly those which were already
mentioned in the 2010 MV list of peaks. 31 existing entries have also been
significantly revised and/or expanded.  The vast majority of entries in the list still relate to specific peaks, but for other features, the category of the feature has been added in brackets after the name where this is not self-evident, e.g. Slieve Aughty (range), Corraun (peninsula), etc. The title of the list has been changed to “Irish Landscape Names” to reflect the wider range of content. I hope to add a selection of significant water features, rock features, glens and passes in later updates.  This document is now available as a pdf at https://mountainviews.ie/resourceitem/names/List2019/IrishLandscapeNames2019.pdf

Preface to 2010 edition
For a few years now I have had the pleasure of contributing to the Mountain Views website (www.mountainviews.ie ), particularly by compiling place-name data and information from other relevant disciplines on the names of the Irish mountains listed there. This excellent website was created as a resource for Irish hillwalkers by Simon Stewart, who also maintained it with great vision and dedication for about a decade. Over 800 members have contributed articles and photos to the website and helped with its development. It has been so successful that the running of the site and associated walking events has recently been entrusted to a committee of volunteers, though Simon still has a leading role in this. The list of mountains and hills has been expanded several times and it now comprises no less than 1,056 summits. The compilation of this data has been a community effort over a number of years. At an early stage I got involved in compiling name information, mainly from existing place-name surveys. I then also carried out some original research on names of certain peaks, and helped to establish both Irish and English forms for some hills for which information was scarce. Contributors to MV also provided useful information on names, particularly for certain minor peaks, and this was incorporated into the notes on the site.

Until now the notes on the names of the summits have only been accessible by visiting the page for each summit separately. However, enquiries and feedback over the last few years strongly suggested that there was sufficient interest to justify having the name information and other relevant data available in a single document to facilitate consultation. This document is now available as a pdf at  . The headings in this list are Anglicised Name(s) (or Irish name where not available); Irish Name(s) (where available); Name Origin and Meaning; Notes about peak and name(s); Area; County; Grid Reference; Height (in metres); 1:50,000 map sheet. I should explain that the Irish name comes second only for the practical reason that this column is unfortunately blank in quite a lot of cases, especially for minor hills whose name was only known in English. We have managed to fill in more than a few of the blanks, and continue to work on completing this data.

I would be very interested to get any comments about this document. It runs to 111 pages, so I’m sure it is not completely error-free, and I’d be happy for you to report any errors or inconsistencies, either through the site or by emailing me. If you have information on names which currently lack it, that would also be most welcome.

It is also worth emphasising, for the benefit of those who are not yet familiar with Mountain Views, that it is much more than just a list of summits with comments and photos. It is more like a Facebook for Irish hillwalkers, but better (attention is focussed on the mountains rather more than on individual walkers). Do take a look. The second annual evening of talks and awards was held recently at Bewleys Hotel near Dublin, and ‘Scavenger’ walks are organised by members on an occasional basis.

The Later European Prehistory Group of Cambridge is excited to invite you to submit an abstract to our conference “A Blessing and a Curse: Mediterranean mountains between idyll and violence in later Prehistory”
Mountains are indeed double in their nature: on one hand, they are places of idyllic refuge, where to escape the stress of urban and civilised life, uncontaminated corners of beauty and loci amoeni; on the other, they are liminal places, places of anxiety, where phenomena of colonisation, globalisation and normalisation happened at a different pace, or never at all, frictional landscapes where the rules are dictated by a harsh and unforgiving environment.

F. RUBAT BOREL, a cura di, Preistoria e protostoria in ambiente montano: scoperte e ricerca territoriale, tutela e valorizzazione /Prehistory and protohistory in mountain environment: discoveries and territorial research, protection and enhancement (VII Incontro Annuale di Preistoria e Protostoria IAPP, Museo Nazionale della Montagna "Duca degli Abruzzi", Torino 7 giugno 2019), IIPP, Firenze 2019, 117 pp.

The program of development of the mountainous landscape surrounding the altopiano aims to “signal things” rather than directly to transform them. A project of cultural reading, rather than strictly regulate, which aims to produce long-term results
beyond the architectural and territorial individual projects. Today the landscape is no longer reducible merely to an aesthetic and cultural event; but through the integration of the economic, social and environmental landscape is a real economic resource, perhaps the most important of our
national territory, able to activate new processes of development and different growth models.
This “descriptive planning” suggests a gradual transformation – or at least tries to promote a progressive diversification – of the places, today a fast and careless touristic destination, to a diversified and “low impact” tourism, aware of the environmental value of places, driven to discover new landscapes and to cross them instead of just to watch them from “outside”. These proposed measures are intended to focus attention on some specific places that do not currently enjoy the right value but which may become the subject of a back enjoyment of the landscape through a series of sports activities that could be called complementary to snowboarding and alpine skiing. The altopiano has a beauty connected with
the limits; narrowness to be understood as unity and ability to embrace the whole with a single glance, one of the features that make it so unique the altopiano delle Rocche. This completeness establishing a dialectical relationship with the goals “external” to the territory of the basin, establishing – through the presence of close and long views – a double-scale landscape of the plateau.

Information on ESPON and its projects can be found on www.espon.eu. The web site provides the possibility to download and examine the most recent documents produced by finalised and ongoing ESPON projects. This delivery exists only in an electronic version.

This area is located in Mount in the north-western part of Tih plateau in Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, where it occupies an area estimated at around 629.95 km2, between latitudes 29° 20: 29° 50 North and longitudes 33° 10: 33° 50 East, Bodea Mount is considered as the line of division of water between the springs south- western Al-Arish valley and the springs valley east Wardan valley. The research contains five chapters preceded by an introduction and end by a conclusion.
Chapter 1: Geological Gabal Bodea Area
This Chapter dealt with the distribution of the geological formations in the area of the study, ranging in age between Cretaceous period and the era of Eocene lower as well as for deposits of the fourth time formations and most of the study area compositions are limestone. And the most prevailing component in the region is chalking Sudr that follows the upper Cretaceous. This was followed by a study of geological structure, which includes the rifts and distortions concluded chapter to study geological evolution of the region of the study.
Chapter 2: The impact of climate elements on weathering
rocks Gabal Bodea Area
Chapter 2: is Interested in examines the impact of climate elements on weathering rocks Gabal Bodea area . This chapter is divided into two parts,the first, effect of climate elements in the process weathering, which were represented in (Temperature , Relative humidity , Rains , and Evaporation). Secondly, those resulting from weathering of all types with images to illustrate that forms.
Chapter 3 : Talk about geomorphologic slopes, and it has three elements: first: the Analysis of contour map, which had been through the establishment of six sectors terrain average of its slopes 26° , with the establishment of maps spatial analysis such as (Digital elevation model) Secondly: Analysis of the slopes field sectors, thirdly: forms morphological associated with slopes.
Chapter 4: Morphometric Analysis for Drainage Basins and
networks. Discusses the analyses morphometric of drainage basins and their networks. The total number of drainage basins in the area of the study 9 Basins. This chapter is divided into three elements: first morphology drainage basins, and the studying of it indicates that, the average area basin of 78.74 km2, while the average length of basins 15.85 km, whereas the average width 7.38 and basins as a whole
tend to indicate. Second analysis of networks, the total number of networks which is about (11132).While the total length of streams in the area of the study (4017.534)
km, and the Drainage Density is (6.6 km/km2). Thirdly, geomorphological
characteristics sectors longitudinal and casual.
Chapter 5: Applied Geomorphological for Gabal Bodea Area
This chapter is in two parts, Part I deal with the geomorphological hazards, like; Flash floods, mass movement slopes,
Part 2 deals with the facilities of the development of the study area, which varied in several elements ( water resources , agricultural development, tracks desert, mineral resources , building materials , urbanization, and finally, the development of tourism)

The concept of terrain is one of the most important in our spatial lexicon but, with a few exceptions, has been under-analyzed in critical theories of space. In this essay, I propose a materialist and affective conceptualization of terrain that draws from first-hand accounts of warfare in the Korengal Valley in Afghanistan, where the US military's power was undermined by the mountainous terrain and by the manipulation of this terrain by guerrilla fighters. Drawing from Spinoza and the turn to materiality in critical theory, I propose that terrain can be best analyzed through an affective geometry attentive to how bodies in motion are affected by, and affect, the terrain they are part of. In particular, I analyze the visual and textual material on warfare in the Korengal to argue that terrain can be conceptualized as a non-representable multiplicity of forms and objects that is irreducible to human experience and has the power to both constrain and enhance human action; that terrain is intrinsically opaque to human perception; that terrain has a processual, shifting materiality that is inseparable from the flux of the atmosphere; and that terrain's three-dimensional nature becomes most clear in the importance of controlling the higher ground in mountain warfare. This conceptualization of terrain reveals the microphysics of how insurgents weaponized the materiality of mountains and why an affective geometry of terrain matters in the analysis of insurrections.

The Bucegi Mountains are located in the center of Romania.
According to Wikipedia: "The Bucegi is believed to be the Dacian holy mountain Kogainon, on which the God Zalmoxis resided in a cave."
Besides these ancient tales, various so-called 'fringe interest groups' claim that there is an extensive network of tunnels and large rooms hidden out-of-sight in the Bucegi Mountains.
Even though some of the claims that are being made would seem quite outrageous. The best way to debunk or corroborate such stories is to attempt to acquire some visual evidence to work from.

Mountains were always a convenient region, which could be profited from as both a safe refuge protecting from the enemy as well as an opportune starting point of an attack against the enemy's territory. An analysis of works left by Byzantine historians and orators, describing military struggles between the Byzantines and the Bulgarians, which took place at the end of the 12 th and the beginning of the 13 th centuries, prove the above-mentioned role was played by the Haemus range (meaning here the Pre-Balkan and Stara Planina) in the process of recreating the Bulgarian state on the eve of the late Medieval Period. The texts suggest that over the period the mountains were associated by the Byzantines with a lair of rebels, i. e. a place, where their enemies were seeking refuge form the imperial army, and an area from which they would launch their attacks against the Byzantine territory. The Bulgarians, in turn, utilized the naturally protective characteristic of the Haemus itself as well as strongholds constructed therein to turn the region into a stronghold of their independence movement, which was especially important in the initial period of existence of their late medieval Bulgarian state, i.e. still when it was not a well-established political structure.

Editado en 2004, patrocinado por la Cámara Nacional de las Industrias de la Celulosa, y el Papel, para la Comisión Nacional Forestal, Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. Presentación de Alberto Cárdenas Jiménez, Director General de la Comisión Nacional Forestal. El texto, en un principio fue una simple recopilación de experiencias, investigaciones, apuntes y diarios de campo de Ismael Arturo Montero García, durante su docencia en la Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (1989-1995). Con motivo del Año Internacional de las Montañas, 2002, así declarado por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, el autor presentó una versión del registro arqueológico de la alta montaña acorde a la convocatoria para concursar por el Premio Nacional al Mérito Forestal 2002, en la Distinción Especial de Ecoturismo, felizmente el fallo favorable del jurado permitió a la investigación trascender más allá de la literatura propia de su gremio para incorporarse a los fines comunes del manejo sustentable de la montaña por la vía del ecoturismo. Con esta edición, se abre la posibilidad de que un núcleo de información incrementado en años se vea aplicado en el beneficio económico de las comunidades forestales menos favorecidas en su desarrollo económico.

The Tropical Andes are the home to many diverse communities, from remote farming villages to large urban centres and capitals, such as Merida, Bogotá, Quito, Cusco, El Alto and La Paz. In total, about 60 million people live at between 1,000 and 4,500 metres (Cuesta, 2012). The region has a tropical climate, with little seasonal variation in temperatures. The Tropical Andes will experience some of the most drastic impacts of climate changes in South America. By the year 2100, the coldest years in the Tropical Andes Mountains will be warmer than the warmest years to which humans and other species have adapted
so far. Different climate models all indicate warming everywhere, but there is far greater uncertainty when it comes to projections of precipitation and seasonality (Magrin et al. 2014). However, the general trend across the region is that precipitation will increase in the already wet north-west and decrease in the drier Altiplano area and north-east. The rainy season in the Altiplano area is already becoming more concentrated, and the dry season longer.
The Tropical Andes are among the world’s biodiversity hotspots most vulnerable to climate change (Malcolm et al., 2006). These mountains contain a wide spectrum of microclimates harbouring unique diversity of
ecosystems. Glaciers, high mountain grasslands, mountain forests, rivers, lakes and wetlands provide essential services to society.  Therefore, damage from climate change to these ecosystems can consequently harm society. If they are to adapt successfully to climate
change, mountain ecosystem services and mountain communities must be recognized and protected. However, there is strong seasonality of precipitation, in the Peruvian Andes in particular. In Colombia and Venezuela, the Andes are generally more humid, while the Altiplano and the Bolivian Andes are drier Altiplano area and north-east. The rainy season in the Altiplano area is already becoming more concentrated,
and the dry season longer.
The Tropical Andes are among the world’s biodiversity hotspots most vulnerable to climate change (Malcolm et al., 2006). These mountains contain a wide spectrum of microclimates harbouring unique diversity of
ecosystems. Glaciers, high mountain grasslands, mountain forests, rivers, lakes and wetlands provide essential services to society. Therefore, damage from climate change to these ecosystems can consequently harm society. If they are to adapt successfully to climate
change, mountain ecosystem services and mountain communities must be recognized and protected.
Key risks from climate change
Change in the precipitation regime will have serious implications for the provision of water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture, energy and industry. Meanwhile, temperature increase will alter the biochemical composition of soil and vegetation, thereby changing its capacity to regulate water flows. Extreme events, albeit not caused by climate change alone, will further reduce the capacity of soil and vegetation to prevent landslides. Glacier melt can – in some cases – release heavy metals into water flows, which can pose health risks for those using the
water. The increase and concentration of the demand for water and other resources will be amplified by population growth and urbanization.
Water availability is essential to all key economic activities in the Tropical Andes, especially hydropower, which generates the majority of electricity in the region. Mining is another key economic activity in the area, and relies heavily on water resources. In areas where water is becoming scarce, inclusive management systems are necessary to prevent conflict between stakeholders.
Agriculture is among the most important subsistence and economic activities in the Tropical Andes, and one of the sectors most affected by climate change. Tubers, such as potatoes and oca, are particularly vulnerable to warming. As the mountains become warmer, crops need to be moved to higher elevations, often with negative consequences for pastoralists and biodiversity. Warming is also threatening high mountain grasslands, which are particularly important for pastoral communities and water regulation (López-i-Gelats et al., 2015).
Agricultural problems affect some of the poorest and most vulnerable to food insecurity, with substantial negative effects on human health. Furthermore, insects and vector-borne diseases have moved higher as the climate has warmed (Siraj et al., 2014). Malaria, dengue fever and other diseases will therefore become more prominent in the mountains.
Extreme climatic events are predicted to increase in strength and can in turn cause floods, droughts and landslides. These events have the potential to cause enormous harm to humans, infrastructure and the environment. Socioeconomic indicators determine to a significant degree the outcome of such extreme events for different social groups. For example, poor people living in slums on the steep hillsides of Andean cities are more vulnerable to landslides.
Key findings
Mountain communities in the Tropical Andes are particularly vulnerable and exposed to climate hazards, partly due to their disproportionate poverty and the specific features of mountain environments.
For example, geographic inaccessibility affects all industries and increases the costs of hazardous events and adaptation policies. Furthermore, remote mountain areas are often under-prioritized by central governments. Adaptation targeted towards mountain-specific environments is currently underdeveloped, despite being necessary to avoiding the abovementioned risks.
Because of the complex topography in mountainous regions, available climate models are often too coarse to provide precise and less ambiguous projections at the local level. This adds uncertainty to the development of adaptation policies, which are crucial to facing climate hazards both in the mountains and in the lowlands. There is also a lack of mountain-specific data, and knowledge on how climate change affects social and biological systems, which both are key to developing and implementing effective adaptation strategies. Furthermore, insufficient technical capacity on mountains and adaptation is another barrier to successful policy development and implementation, especially at the sub-national government levels.
Since the impact of climate change occurs over decades and centuries, adaptation policies should ideally be based on long-term observations in combination with projections. However, current institutional designs favour actions with shortterm gain. Too often stakeholders are forced to implement reactive policies instead of more costeffective preventive action. A long-term perspective towards adaptation also involves the development of indicators to measure success and failure in order to improve policies and strategies.
The lack of technical knowledge and capacity on climate change issues that is prevalent among local stakeholders hinders their ability to adapt to changes.
This could partly explain the lack of implementation of existing adaptation policies in mountain communities. Furthermore, effective adaptation calls for the coordination of climate change adaptation across policy sectors and places, but weak institutions currently hinder this. There are, however, some existing policy frameworks (e.g. for Risk Management and for Integrated Watershed Management) that, despite not having been created under the climate change label, could easily be used for adaptation purposes and have a complete set of policy instruments.
Problems caused by climate change in the mountains are often transboundary due to their importance in terms of hydrology, the location of basins and the continuation of social and biological systems.
International cooperation and coordination on mountain policy could increase adaptive capacity. The tropical Andean countries share many challenges and opportunities, which could favour mutual cooperation and benefits, yet the lack of sharing of information and practical experiences between countries in the region hinders the effective development and implementation of adaptation policies.
Another barrier is the lack of effective participation of women and indigenous people from mountain communities and the lack of inclusion of traditional knowledge in the design and implementation of mountain adaptation policies. The highest numbers of indigenous people in the countries live in the high sierra in central Peru and in the Altiplano. Thriving in some of the world’s most difficult environments demonstrates ingenuity and adaptability, yet these capacities are currently underutilized by society due to poverty, sexism and ethnic discrimination. Adaptation measures should build on traditional knowledge wherever available and involve women, indigenous people and vulnerable groups in their planning and implementation.