Roman theaters

The two-part article presents a new theory of the geometric methods used by architects to plan Roman theaters. The study is based on a systematic geometric analysis of the archaeological evidence. It showed that the designers did not follow Vitruvian guidelines, but rather a much more complex and flexible geometric system. The first part of the article covers the geometry of the cavea. The second part will present the analysis of the scaenae building and the geometric methods Roman architects could use to plan the size of the theater for the expected capacity of the auditorium. The article will demonstrate that the layout of the cunei in the cavea was designed based on central angles specific to a variety of regular polygons, including those which are geometrically non-constructible, like heptagon or nonagon. The plan of the scaenae was based on a square grid coordinated with the proportional system of the whole project including the location of the axes of the valvae hospitalia. The capacity of the theater was calculated based on the geometric approximation of the value of π. The plasticity of thus defined geometric design methodology, and its various parameters, resonates much better with our knowledge of the ancient theater structures: they are all similar, but each one is unique. The research offers also a new insight into the Roman design practices.

Maria Antonietta Rizzo, Leptis e il suo anfiteatro
PARTE I
Maria Ricciardi, L'anfiteatro di Leptis magna
Premessa
Introduzione
I. Storia degli studi e delle indagini archeologiche
Le notizie dei viaggiatori
Le spoliazioni, la cart...

Anno di Edizione: 2018
Edizione: L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER
Collane: Monografie di Archeologia Libica, 43
ISBN: 978-88-913-0982-2
Rilegatura: Rilegato
Pagine: 400, 180 ill. B/N, 1 ill. Col.
Formato: 21 x 29,5 cm

The theater of Tlos represents one of the best preserved monuments of the city. The theater, laid out
on an east-west axis, is located on the slope bordering the city from east. With its three-storey stage
and large auditorium (cavea), this theater was once one of the major theaters of Lycia in terms of
its architectural design. A small temple located on the top level of the auditorium also makes this
theater very special among western Anatolian theaters. The entrance to the auditorium is provided
by two vaulted passages (paradoi) located on the northern and southern sides, while two additional
vaults provide access to the horizontal walkway dividing the auditorium into two sections. In
addition, two stepped walkways reach to the surrounding wall at the top level of the auditorium
from the east. The auditorium is divided into two sections through a horizontal walkway (diazoma).
The lower part of the auditorium is formed of 20 rows of seats, while the upper one is formed of 16
rows of seats. The audience arriving at the theater was able to reach to the upper level through a
narrow vertical walkway formed of steps. The semi-diameter of the orchestra, slightly exceeding
a semicircular shape, is 20.50 m. The stone seats reserved for prestigious people (proedria) are
placed above the horizontal walkway. Another distinctive feature of the theater is the fl oral and
fi gural architectural decorations observed on the façade of the stage. The inscriptions uncovered
here demonstrate that the theater witnessed several renovations in the Roman period. However, the
architectural details and an inscription mentioning the restoration of the theater in the 1st century
BC imply that the construction of this theater might have begun in the Hellenistic period.

Even the name, Pausilypon, or “place that puts an end to worries”, today used to refer to the entire Neapolitan hillside, conveys an idea of the pleasantness of the sites and the purpose of the villa. The hillside of Posillipo rises to the west of the ancient city of Neapolis, separating the territory of the city from the Phlegraean Fields. From there it extends toward the sea and, along with the island of Nisida, divides the Gulf of Naples from that of Pozzuoli. The construction of the villa of Pausilypon probably dates to the second half of the 1st century BC, when it belonged to the eques Publius Vedius Pollio. At the time of the equestrian’s defeat in 15 BC, the grandiose villa was given over through inheritance to Augustus. The complex was built as a villa for otium and transformed over the course of the 1st century AD to adapt to the new needs of the Imperial court.

This paper investigates the mythological wall paintings decorating the room known as the tablinum in atrium houses at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Scholars have considered the tablinum part of the “public” section of the house and have linked this room to the formal morning greeting, or salutatio, despite the fact that no ancient literary source mentions the tablinum in connection with this daily ritual. These assumptions have conditioned the way in which scholars have interpreted the decoration, which is analyzed in relation to the social activities supposedly associated with this type of room or discussed in terms of moral ideals and social values. This study demonstrates that the figurative imagery within the tablinum does not necessarily relate to social practices in that space but instead informs us about a common visual vocabulary shared by different strata of society.

The aim of this essay is to illustrate how the architecture of the imperial otium villas reflects the change in the concept of imperial power which occurred during the second half of the first century CE. In order to do so, we have to start from the concept of otium procul negotiis, elaborated by the Roman aristocracy during the Republican age, which implies an ideal boundary between the political life of the Urbe and the practice of otium. So the ownership of an extra-urban villa, meant as a place of leisure away from political life, became the bedrock of the Roman aristocracy.
As we will see, with the birth of the empire, the ideal boundary between the spheres of otium and negotium became vague and began to break down, because the emperor could not remain outside political life. Therefore social and political procedures, ceremonial events and imperial luxury began to be manifested both on the Palatine and in extra-urban residences, within architectural complexes enriched with innovative, singular elements that reflect this change and the new
concept of otium as an instrument of power.

En dépit de l’absence de critères chronologiques assurés, l’idée persiste à Lyon que le règne d’Hadrien (117-138) fut une période particulièrement importante dans le domaine de la construction publique. Cette attribution excessive des monuments publics au règne d’Hadrien ou à l’empereur lui-même est une tradition ancienne. Pour la conserver, des arguments ont été recherchés, mais ils reposaient sur des interprétations erronées ou hasardeuses.
D’un point de vue historiographique, ce dossier dépasse le cadre lyonnais en nous interrogeant sur l’objectivité du chercheur et la démarche scientifique. Consciemment ou non, le chercheur a fréquemment recours à la méthode hypothético-déductive, qui consiste à chercher des arguments qui conforteraient et valideraient une hypothèse. Si la démarche est tout à fait scientifique, on constate toute la difficulté que le chercheur éprouve à abandonner une hypothèse non validée parfaitement. Cet exemple révèle également toute la force d’une idée et des traditions qui ont poussé à échafauder un système d’argumentations circulaires comme le désir d’ordonner des vestiges dans un système quasi dogmatique.

""This volume deals with the buildings for public spectacles (theatres and odeia) in the Roman province of Achaea. Through the analysis of all the available evidence, the work aims to highlight the importance played by the theatrical culture in this area. As such, it not only focuses on the architectural development of the theatrical buildings over time and space, but it also takes into account the character of both the spectacles and other events which were carried out inside them, as well as their decorative elements. Outside Achaea, theatres of other provinces of the Roman Empire are dealt with as meaningful comparanda under several respects. The examination extends from the creation of the province of Achaea in 27 BC through the late 4th c. AD, the time to which the latest restoration work and the last additions of decorative elements are attested.
The first part of the volume reviews the archaeological evidence, examining a total of 32 theatrical buildings. These include both constructions built ex novo and earlier edifices, which were either altered under the Empire or were occasionally preserved in their original condition. Additional buildings, which are only referred to in the literary sources or were not in use in the Imperial period, are dealt with in the appendix (232-236).
The second part is an interpretation of the evidence. Chapter 1 focuses on the architectural development of the theatres in Greece, from the Classical age through the beginning of the Imperial period. The peculiarities of this building typology, born in Greece and spread over time to Magna Graecia and Sicily, are emphasized.
Chapter 2 deals not only with the spectacles held inside the theatres of Achaea, but also with the uses of such buildings, which included different kinds of events, such as agones, political assemblies and performances of a Roman type: mimes, pantomimes, ludi, and aquatic dances. Such a wide variety of functions accounts for several architectural peculiarities of the theatres of Achaea, highlighting major shifts and innovations against a framework of substantial continuity.
Chapter 3 analyzes the theatres of Roman Greece from the perspective of their architecture. The uninterrupted use of several theatres, which were but minimally altered from the late Classical through the late Roman period, is particularly emphasized. Conversely, most theatres of the Classical and Hellenistic age underwent modifications, which were usually limited to the stage, while the cavea was left unaltered. A few of them were newly built in the Imperial period, following trends of the core of the Empire. Drawing on this architectural analysis, a few tendencies can be singled out, rather than an encompassing evolutionary model. In fact, the coexistence in Achaea of traditional and western elements in both new and older buildings is a major feature that prevents one from generalizing and conversely invites a bottom-up approach.
Chapter 4 deals with the odeia, roofed buildings commonly of smaller size than the theatres. Their location both in sanctuaries and cities, the information provided  by literary sources, and the comparison to similar buildings in other provinces underscore a variety of destinations, of both a political and an artistic nature. The various uses are reflected in both architecture and in the decoration of such buildings. It is also suggested that the odeia were used in the frame of the imperial cult.
Chapter 5 examines in detail the sculptural decoration of the theatrical buildings in the province of Achaea. Both sculptures and inscriptions documenting the presence of sculptures are taken into account. The decoration related to the architecture of the theatres includes both supporting figures, appearing mostly in the 2nd c. AD at the time of the Second Sophistic, and slabs decorated with reliefs, which play a central role in highlighting the self-representation and identity of the local civic communities. Ideal sculptures depict mostly Dionysian imagery, thereby underlying the substantial continuity with the past. Unlike the theatres of the western provinces of the Empire, opera nobilia and personifications are extremely rare and iconic statues are more numerous than ideal representations. The former group not only includes images of members of the imperial family and local benefactors, but also a category specific to the province of Achaea: outstanding personalities of the past (generals, philosophers, poets, scholars). Undoubtedly, this group of sculptures stresses the celebration of the past, a founding element of the definition of Greek identity under the Roman Empire.
Chapter 6 focuses on the relation between the theatre and the imperial cult in the province of Achaea. The festivities in honour of the emperor were centered on the procession (pompe) across several locations in the cities and celebrations inside theatres, which also included the exhibition of the portraits of the emperor and of members of the imperial family. The latter are not to be seen as proper cult images, but rather as a symbol of the tangible presence of the emperor and his family, thereby hinting at the solidity of the Empire. They include statues and portraits, as well as smaller busts that were carried during the processions on the occasion of the celebrations.
Chapter 7 concentrates on the decoration of three major theatres of Achaea in its whole: the theatre at Corinth, which represents an balanced synthesis of local tradition and exaltation of the imperial power; the theatre of Dionysus at Athens, where the connection with the past and the importance of tradition are emphasized; and the theatre at Messene, which functioned as the venue where members of the local family of the Saithidai celebrated themselves.
Finally, the epilogue of the volume focuses on the contribution of the theatre, under the point of view of architecture, decorative elements, and functions, to the study of the process of Romanization in Greece. The theatres of Achaea under the Empire represent an unrivalled source of information to evaluate the cultural impact of Rome on a Greek architectural type par excellence. To put it differently, the study of the theatres of Roman Greece enable one to grasp the cultural negotiation between Greek and Roman culture, as they were conceived as places where the central Roman authority confronted the provincial élites. Meanwhile, another aspect of the process of Romanization is documented in the theatres, namely, the self-representation of the local communities, both through the production of decorative programs, the carrying out of feasts and processions, and the modalities by which the spectators were distributed within the buildings. In Roman Greece, which is studied through the paradigm of the province of Achaea, theatres represent a place of confrontation and delicate balance between the local Greek and the Roman element. Confrontation is marked by the continuity of the Greek element and the preservation of specific features that create an expression of the purported respect of tradition. In the delicate balance between tradition and innovation, it is tradition that in most cases seems to have prevailed over innovation.""

The building materials used in Rome are well known. Yet beyond marble, which has commanded great attention from both ancient authors and modern researchers, much can still be discovered regarding the specific meaning, or semantics, of other building materials. In this contribution, the semantics of travertine are studied as an exemplary case through a collection of archaeological and written testimonies. Following the introduction of travertine into Rome in the 2 nd century B.C., it was favoured for its strength. Still, its distinctive surface texture remained largely hidden under stucco coatings. In contrast to marble, the visual qualities of travertine were apparently considered unappealing. Only during the Early Imperial period did travertine surfaces become the standard for prestigious substructures of all kinds. With the Flavian emperors-who sought a visual contrast to Neronian aesthetics and propagated a new, down-to-earth approach to building-even the most iconic monuments, such as the Colosseum, received a travertine façade. In addition, a special 'plain' style became standard for the design of travertine structures.

The frieze bearing representations related to agonistic themes was located above the porta regia of the theatre of Hierapolis (Phrygia). It celebrated the exaltation of local games, called the Apolloneia Pythia. In this article we suggest new possible identifications for some of the figures which constitute the frieze. Furthermore, a stylistic analysis of the frieze leads us to conclude that a workshop of "Docimian" sculptors worked at Hierapolis. These sculptors would have been responsible not only for the decoration of the scaenae frons of the theatre,  but also for some sarcophagi found in the necropolis of the town. Finally, the study of the façade of the theatre as a whole sheds light on the multplie uses of this monument in antiquity. This allows us to understand the criteria for the selection of some iconographies, in order to transmit some messages. The decoration of the scaenae frons as a whole can be viewed as a "text" to be read on different levels. Its messages are expressed through a complicated code which combined images and written language.

This book traces the history of the archaeological excavations carried out by the author between 2000 and 2012 in the ancient city of Campania Sessa Aurunca. The archaeological excavation allowed to discover the monumental Roman Theatre of the Augustan age, where the magnificent architectural decoration in polychrome marbles and the statues of the family Antonina were found, including the beautiful statue bichrome of Matidia Minor, Sabina Augusta’s sister and the emperor Hadrian’s sister in law. Matidia, in the middle of the second century AD, rebuilt most of the public monuments of the city destroyed by an earthquake, including the Theatre enriching it with statues and colored marble decorations. In the book they are also illustrated other excavation sites in the ancient city which  have allowed to identify monuments that have enriched the considerable wealth of inscriptions and marble fragments. All these data have made it possible to trace the history of Suessa and its monuments, one of the most important cities of Campania in the Imperial Roman era.

Compared to those of the classical theatres, the shape of the stage in the so-called «Gallo-Roman» theatre was significantly reduced. The theatres at Augst, Avenches and Mandeure are all examples that illustrate this, in that they had a lot of space for the cavea and rear entrances while the space reserved for the stage was quite restricted. In view of the design of the stages in the theatres at Alesia, Dalheim or Lousonna, we must consider the possibility that there was a podium built into the orchestra. Moreover, the theatre and the odeon at Vienne and Lyons had a range of sculptures that were intended to enhance the stage scenery. The more elaborate decorations of the theatres at Orange and Arles included several depictions attesting to the joint presence of the emperor and Dionysus. A series of mosaic floors help capture some of the scenic performances on a smaller stage. However, the backdrop at Argentomagus is the example that comes closest to the type of façade the Rauraci, Helvetii and Sequani would have enjoyed.

Summary
The paper deals with early theatre-like buildings in Gaul dating from the Late Iron Age (La Tène D) to the Late Augustan-Tiberian period. Starting with the features excavated in 2011 at Corent (Puy-de-Dôme, F) and a recent analysis of the theatre at Alba-la-Romaine (Ardèche, F), the formal developmental aspects of so-called Gallo-Roman theatres («théâtres gallo-romains») are discussed in juxtaposition with Imperial period urban theatre edifices in the Mediterranean region. Functional aspects are also studied in order to highlight the social and political role played by theatres situated within sanctuaries. The final discussion also includes other features which could lead to further theatre buildings from the very early stages of the Imperial period being identified. The paper is intended to give a provisional appraisal which may act as a basis for future examinations on the typological development of the Gallo-Roman theatre whose roots may actually lie in pre-Roman times.

Zusammenfassung
Der vorliegende Beitrag befasst sich mit frühen theaterartigen Bauten Galliens von der Späteisenzeit (La Tène D) bis zur spätaugusteisch-tibe-rischen Zeit. Ausgehend von den 2011 freigelegten Befunden in Corent (Puy-de-Dôme, F) bzw. vom neu ausgewerteten Theater in Alba-la-Ro-maine (Ardèche, F) werden formale Entwicklungsaspekte der sogenann-ten gallo-römischen Theater («théâtres gallo-romains») im Vergleich mit städtischen Theaterbauten im mediterranen Raum der Kaiserzeit diskutiert. Zudem sollen auch funktionale Aspekte untersucht werden, um die soziale und politische Rolle der in Heiligtümern errichteten Theaterbauten zu beleuchten. Abschliessend wird in der Diskussion auf andere Befunde eingegangen, die zur Identifizierung weiterer Thea-terbauten aus der frühesten Kaiserzeit führen könnten. Die Ausführun-gen verstehen sich als eine Zwischenbilanz im Rahmen zukünftiger Untersuchungen zur typologischen Entwicklung des gallo-römischen Theaters, deren Anfänge möglicherweise bereits in vorrömischer Zeit zu suchen sind.

Riassunto
Il presente contributo si occupa delle prime forme di edifici simili a te-atri in Gallia a partire dalla tarda età del ferro (La Tène D) fino all'età tardoaugustea-tiberiana. Sulla base dei ritrovamenti effettuati nel 2011 a Corent (Puy-de-Dôme, F) e delle nuove interpretazioni del teatro a Alba-la-Romaine (Ardèche, F) si discutono aspetti dell'evoluzione dei cosiddetti teatri gallo-romani («théâtres gallo-romains») confrontan-doli con degli edifici teatrali urbani del periodo imperiale situati nell'area mediterranea. Al fine di gettar luce sul ruolo sociale e politico di tali edifici costruiti all'interno di santuari, si analizzeranno pure aspetti funzionali delle strutture. In conclusione la discussione verterà su altri ritrovamenti, i quali potrebbero condurre all'identificazione di ulterio-ri edifici teatrali dell'epoca primo imperiale. Le riflessioni proposte vo-gliono rappresentare un bilancio intermedio nell'ambito di studi futuri a proposito dell'evoluzione tipologica del teatro gallo-romano, le quali radici probabilmente sono da cercarsi già nel periodo preromano.

The study of Roman water-displays is constantly evolving, with research being conducted on the terminology of the structures, their typologies, their aesthetic programs, and their impact on the social and physical landscapes surrounding them. The water-displays of Roman Greece have received various treatments over the last four decades, including catalogues, their artistic programs, their ties to identity, and their placement in wider Empire-wide schemes of imperial and civic patronage. While much has been done on the Roman fountains of Greece, it is the aim of this essay to survey the terminology used and the historiography therein, in order to consider water-displays that have not received a great deal of attention, in religious, civic, and entertainment-related contexts. We will then posit several ways to advance the study of public Roman water-displays in Greece.

- table of content of the whole volume
- abstracts of Thomas Hufschmid's contribution, concerning the  theatres and amphitheatres of Augusta Raurica (CH)

order the book under:

http://www.schwabe.ch/schwabe-verlag/buecher/buchdetails/fuehrer-durch-augusta-raurica-4989/?tt_products[sword]=F%25C3%25BChrer%2520durch%2520Augusta%2520Raurica&cHash=ad2c099d91a6476720b4f2d0d5969233

The way a Roman theatre is presently known, interpreted, sensed or reimaged is entrusted, above all, to our faculty of sight. And yet the Roman theatre was not simply a building to be seen. It was also a place full of sounds and a place in which various smells mixed together in a way that affected the performance. In the theatre, visual perception was thus activated alongside the auditory and olfactory perception of the environment. Is there today any possibility of experiencing a reenactment of the smells that spread everywhere within Roman theatres so that we can better understand this distinctive feature of these buildings during the Imperial age? What new technical means can be mobilized to enable modern audiences to smell and sense theatrical antiquity (for instance, in museums and multi-media productions)? With reference to the concrete proposal of the olfactory installation – the so called ‘olfactory plate’ – in the Multimedia and Sensory Museum of Milan Roman Theatre, and through a discussion of the reenactment and the re-interpretation of smells in performances of Latin dramatic texts, this chapter reflects on the contemporary reception of smells and other sensory perceptions by visitors to the archaeological remains of Roman theatres, as well as by audiences and performers in these spaces.

In 1959, Antonio Frova, field director of the Italian archaeological expedition, started the excavation of the Roman Theater in Caesarea
Maritima. Sixty years later, the current paper aims to reconsider its data related to the Herodian building phase, on the base of some
unpublished archival documents and in loco architectural members as well. Thus, the Theater’s both architectural and decorative
features will be outlined, with a view to their connection with the contemporary Roman architecture

The first part of the article discussed the geometric framework of the cavea in Roman theaters. The second part presents the results of the investigation of the geometry of the scaenae building and the methods of planning the size of the structure based on the expected number of spectators.

Apresentação do conjunto de cerâmica de verniz negro
recolhido nas escavações arqueológicas do Teatro Romano
de Lisboa realizadas em 2005, 2006 e 2010.
A autora analisa as diferentes classes e formas aí representadas
e procura estabelecer uma cronologia de ocupação do sítio,
com a ajuda de outros materiais contemporâneos desta
produção e presentes nos mesmos contextos da fase final
do período romano republicano.

PALAVRAS CHAVE: Época Romana;
Cerâmica campaniense; Teatro; Olisipo (Lisboa).


Presentation of the set of black varnish pottery found
during archaeological excavations of the Roman Theatre
of Lisbon, carried out in 2005, 2006 and 2010.
The author analyses the different classes and forms
represented, and attempts to establish a site occupation
chronology, aided by other materials found in the same
contexts and from the same period (late stages of
the Republican Roman period).

KEY WORDS: Roman times;
Campanian pottery; Theatre; Olisipo (Lisbon).