Trademark Law

This article comparatively studies non-traditional trade marks that have recently gained popularity in the European Union (EU) and Japan. Businesses invest in sensory marketing strategies to build a long-lasting and unforgettable experience with their consumers. The strategies include branding colour, sound, or the scent of products in a manner that challenges the traditional understanding of what a trade mark is. Despite their clear market advantages, nontraditional trade marks leave the question of drawing the borders of protection to relevant authorities. This study refers to the expansion of trade mark protection to non-traditional signs through the trade mark-balloon phenomenon. The practical significance of this article lies in the analysis of the different responses to the inflating trade mark balloon in the EU and Japan, as well as the boundaries of trade mark protection and the flexibility of the requirements of distinctiveness and representation in these jurisdictions. The scope of this study limits the definition of nontraditional trade marks to colour (colour per se and colour combinations), sound and scent marks. The trade mark laws and case law of the EU and Japan have been utilized to outline the non-traditional signs that are afforded trade mark protection.

Intellectual Property, Nollywood, Creative Industry, Nigerian Copyright Laws, Digital Copyright, International Trade & Development, Transactional Negotiation, Animation Rights, Naijacomedy, Folklore, Traditional Cultural Expressions, Celebrity Branding, Fashion Design, Trademarks, Cyberspace law, Contract laws, Creative Human Capital, Technology law, Technical Protection Measures, Nigerian Copyright Commission, U.S. Copyright Office, Afrollywood, Afrondise, Technical Protection Measure, Digital Copyright Millennium Act, ECOWAS, WTO, TRIPS, WIPO, Cultural Appropriation, Cultural Anachronism, Fair Use, Fair Dealing, Bollywood, Ghallywood, Hollywood, Kennywood, Jollywood, Joziwood, Vollywood, Piracy, Cinematography, Films, Animation, Fashion design, Folklore, Customary law, Nigerian Legal System, Music, Derivative Rights.

Data Profiling which aims to categorize people to decide their eligibility for certain services, inter alia social and economic services, where an automated decision is taken by computers based on people’s profiles. These decisions may pose risks to people’s lives without their awareness, or they might know only when negative consequences occur to them. This may rise questions regarding personal data protection when analyzing such data then categorizing it into different profiles. It also challenges the main principles of the EU Data Protection Directive in a way that makes the directive insufficient to provide protection to data subjects against such profiling risks.

Trademark law is quintessentially a response to all-too-human cognitive failures: We have limited time, limited attention spans, limited memory and an ability for pattern recognition that on the one hand is highly evolved, but also prone to manipulation. But what happens as we increasingly outsource our purchasing decisions to machines? Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the form of autonomous intelligent shopping agents (AISA) such as Siri or Alexa continue to gain autonomy. However, two trademarks that would not be confusing for a human may be difficult to distinguish for an AISA, and conversely, an AISA may be able to distinguish trademarks that are confusing for humans. Similarly, actions intended to infringe a competitor trademark may not be triggered when shoppers are AISA s, but now novel forms of trademark infringement may become possible only in the realm of AISA s. This paper discusses whether the advent of AISA s in retail, and the following change in consumer practises, challenges the current international trademark regime, with a particular focus on the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

Trademarks, or brands, are symbols whose initial purpose is providing information about the source of a product. Yet, with the course of time, high-end brands have developed into symbols providing information about their owner's status rather than about the sold goods. This phenomenon naturally attracts imitation and status cheating, offering new challenges to established trademark doctrines. This chapter outlines the different legal perceptions of imitation in the U.S. and Continental Europe, while placing these perceptions into broader cultural contexts. It then focuses on the U.S. legal view on imitation of trademarks that serve as status symbols, pointing out that this view is “non-traditional” in American context, in the sense that it is inconsistent with U.S. traditional cultural values.

O artigo objetiva identificar aspectos da concepção de moralidade que orienta o procedimento administrativo de exame dos pedidos de registro de marcas pelos analistas do INPI. Em especial, nos interessam os sinais que foram indeferidos por terem sido classificados como ofensivos à moral e aos bons costumes. Neste sentido, o cerne da análise se volta para os casos em que os pedidos de registro foram negados com base inciso III, do art. 124, da Lei de Propriedade Industrial, que fixa que não são registráveis como marca “Expressão, figura, desenho ou qualquer outro sinal contrário à moral e aos bons costumes ou que ofenda a honra ou a imagem de pessoas ou atente contra liberdade de consciência, crença, culto religioso ou ideia e sentimento dignos de respeito e veneração”. Mas que moralidade é essa? Em levantamento efetuado no banco de dados do Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial (INPI), referentes a pedidos de registros de marcas depositados entre setembro de 1987 a outubro de...

Nel mercato globale del vino i marchi d’impresa diventano sempre più importanti. Permettono facilmente di riconoscere aziende e prodotti e rappresentano un forte segno di identità che supporta i consumatori nel momento delle loro scelte.
Sono strumenti essenziali e preziosi per la comunicazione del vino e per la sua commercializzazione sul mercato nazionale e internazionale.
La creazione dei marchi per il vino, la loro gestione, la loro difesa è un’operazione strategica per le cantine che oggi si confrontano con un mercato complesso, non privo di insidie e di concorrenze non sempre leali.
Questo libro, per la prima volta nel panorama editoriale italiano dedicato all’Enologia, affronta tutti i temi relativi ai marchi in questo specifico, affascinante settore. Suggerisce opportune accortezze, fornisce consigli essenziali, illustra il contesto normativo che regola il mondo dei marchi nel settore enologico.
È di assoluta attualità essendo aggiornato con le modifiche legislative appena entrate in vigore in sede europea.
A fianco di una minuziosa parte teorica, ricca di esempi pratici, il libro presenta un vero e proprio “percorso” che, passo dopo passo, tocca tutte le tappe di un caso reale di scelta e registrazione di un marchio per una bottiglia di vino.

Human pride and the need for recognition has led to the unbridled need to identify and associate one’s own ‘brand’ as distinct and supreme. This need gave rise to the concept of trademarks, which essentially affords recognition and identification protection to brands. It is difficult to identify Nike without its “Swoosh” logo and Macintosh without the Apple logo.

Contrary to the general belief, it is worth mentioning that laws surrounding trademarks and intellectual property did not surface with the millennials. It is, in fact, the opposite! The idea and requirement to establish a unique mark for one’s goods or services were introduced by the early Roman Empire, which recognized and valued the importance of trademarks. The Roman legal system recognized distinct marks that were assigned to each sword manufactured in the kingdom depending on the individual style of the bladesmith or swordsmith making it. Centuries later, intellectual property recognition and the need to safeguard it has become pivotal in the ever-changing dynamics of business and there is a constant demand to improve and upgrade the laws therefor. It is certainly a long way ahead, but like they say, Rome was not built in a day!

In this issue, our Lawyers in Dubai and across the globe will discuss legal topics ranging from trademark dilution in the US and EU to application of time in the construction of properties.

As of 2016, 80% of the products sold in Nigeria were counterfeits and as of today, it is quite doubtful that the percentage of counterfeit and illegal goods in circulation has decreased below 50%. According to a report from Frontier Economics in 2017, which was based on an earlier report of 2016 prepared by OECD, it was estimated that the total international trade in counterfeit and pirated goods in 2022 will be worth 991 billion, which is almost double of the number reported in 2013 - 461 billion. It is however not surprising that the amount of total counterfeiting globally as of 2019 exceeded the amount which was estimated for the year 2022. In 2019, according to the Global Counterfeiting & Trademark Infringement Report, the amount of total counterfeiting globally had reached 1.2 trillion U.S dollars. In 2020, statistics revealed that the estimated losses due to counterfeiting of high-end consumer goods amounted to 98 billion USD including counterfeiting from offline and online me...

This engaging and accessible study looks at the origins, evolution, purpose, and limitations of intellectual property. Detailing how intellectual property affects industry, politics, cultural expression, and medical research, Aram Sinnreich takes a multidisciplinary approach to uncover what’s behind the current debates and what the future holds for copyrights, patents, and trademarks.

Based on the notion that intellectual property law is not merely a property right but also a mechanism of cultural and economic regulation with significant consequences for democratic institutions, global businesses, arts, and the sciences, Sinnreich draws on media studies, communications, law, economics, and cultural studies as he provides a blueprint for understanding intellectual property rights and underlines the important and pervasive role that they play in everyone’s lives.

Publication Date (Yale Press): May, 2019.
Available for pre-order on Amazon: http://bit.ly/sinnIP

Protection of Trademark is of utmost importance for growth of the business in general, the Trademark is what distinguishes your business from others. The client might not even know the name of the Manufacture of his favorite product, but what drives him to buy such product is the Trademark which makes him recognize the product.
This paper entails all about Trademark Protection in Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar, explaining how Trademarks are registered, renewed,assigned and protected in both regions of the United Republic of Tanzania

Herewith the little known (and authenticated) story of how the world's most famous trademark first came to the US and Canada. New documentation and illustrations indicate that previous accounts of the early history of Barraud's famous painting were somewhat incomplete. Now also included is the first explanation of how anti-counterfeiting devices (or techniques) were applied to the discs themselves. When did Emile Berliner see the original British painting - read here and know for sure. Whose permission was needed, and secured?

The ability to protect and safeguard cultural heritage is of vital importance to some communities. Without the ability to maintain control over these expressions, external subjects could freely appropriate them, which could negatively affect the community’s identity, spirituality, and general well-being. Increasing awareness regarding cultural heritage provides momentum to better define a legal framework for the protection of the intangible goods that constitute cultural heritage. It is fundamental to ascertain whether the current intellectual property rights (IPR) regime represents an adequate model of protection vis-a-vis intangible cultural heritage (ICH). The culture’s unique concerns, which variably affect ICH, make it difficult to compare the rationales for these two legal domains. These concerns are pivotal in elaborating the need for legal protection. Not only does misuse and misappropriation of ICH cause economic damage, but it also violates the community’s human rights and...

Information Technology Act 2000, doesn't make reference to any word about Intellectual Property assurance while breach of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) is one of the most challenging region on the internet. Just as Copyright and Domain names violations do happen on the web yet Copy Right Act 1957 and Trade Mark Act 1999 are quiet on that which explicitly manages the issue. Along these lines, we have no authorization apparatus to guarantee the insurance of space names on net. The time has arrived, where we should underwrite exceptional enactment for the insurance of Intellectual Property Rights on the internet. This paper is an attempt to depict Intellectual Property Rights in accord to cyber space. Some key questions which are answered in this paper are -
1) How are IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) connected with cyber space ?
2) What kind of IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) are available in cyber space ?
3) Are there any loopholes in the legal system regulating IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) in cyber space ?
This paper is a twofold scenario which initially describes Intellectual Property Rights and cyber security, cyber space. At the end, this paper provides some suggestions in order to improvise the current legislative regime regulating IPR in cyber space.

Does the term "flag" in Section 34(e) of R.A. No. 8491 exclusively refer to Philippine flag? The answer should be in the negative. Ms. Rabiya Mateo, representative of the Philippines to the Miss Universe Competition 2021, may have violated Republic Act No. 8491 or otherwise known as An Act Prescribing the Code of The National Flag, Anthem, Motto, Coat-of-Arms and Other Heraldic Items and Devices of The Philippines, particularly Section 34 (e) of the same law which provides: It shall be prohibited to wear the flag in whole or in part as a costume or uniform.

The Internet has provided effective means of helping sellers to reach potential customers. Under Google's Adwords program, for example, an advertiser can "bid" for and purchase keywords, which are words, or phrases usually derived from trademarks that are, in most cases, well-known. When Internet users enter the trademarked keyword on the search engine of a service provider, such as Google, they are automatically linked to an advertisement sponsored by that bidder, which appears next to the search results. Through this process called keyword advertising, advertisers are able to connect with many Internet users and inform them about their goods, and services. Keyword advertising has, however, generated heated disagreements among trademark proprietors, advertisers, search engine owners, and consumers. Trademark owners, in particular, argue that by allowing advertisers to make unauthorised use of their trademarks as keywords, Google Adword program enables those advertisers to profit from the goodwill commanded by their marks. This is especially because when Internet users enter a trademarked keyword on Google’s search engine, it is usually a bidder’s website that is shown, rather than that of a trademark proprietor. As a result, trademark proprietors have filed numerous lawsuits against Google for trademark infringement. But those disputes have tested the creativity of courts in different jurisdictions whose traditional trademark laws were designed before the advent of keyword advertising. For example, it was not clear whether the use of a trademark as a keyword constituted “:use” as defined in pre-existing trademark law. The main objective of this thesis is to determine whether use of competitors trademark as a keyword, can consider as trademark infringement or not. This thesis examines how a jurisdiction, such as the European Union (EU), as well as its Member States, has grappled with this legal challenge. The research is both qualitative and library-based. It builds upon primary and secondary legal sources, including directives, regulations, judicial decisions, especially the rulings of the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU), and academic literature. The thesis finds that, since the existing European Trade Mark Directive (TMD), and the Community Trade Mark Regulation (CTMR), which constitute the core of EU trademark law, did not anticipate .keyword advertising, the national courts of Member States faced a serious legal conundrum. This resulted in conflicting conclusions as to whether, or not keyword advertising amounted to trademark infringement. For a jurisdiction, such as Malaysia, the research did not uncover any cases on keyword advertising. But the analysis suggests that it is unlikely that keyword advertising will be held to constitute trademark infringement, or even passing off under the Trade Mark Act (TMA), 1976.

Streszczenie

Przez uzyskanie prawa ochronnego na krajowy znak towarowy, rozumie się używanie znaku towarowego w sposób zarobkowy lub zawodowy na całym obszarze RP. Natomiast analogiczne uprawnienie wynikające z rejestracji wspólnotowego znaku towarowego, dotyczy stosowania znaku na terytorium całej Wspólnoty. Używanie znaku towarowego polega w szczególności na umieszczaniu tego znaku na towarach objętych prawem ochronnym lub ich opakowaniach, oferowaniu i wprowadzaniu tych towarów do obrotu, ich imporcie lub eksporcie, a także oferowaniu lub świadczeniu usług pod tym znakiem oraz posługiwaniu się takim znakiem w celu reklamy. W dobie wielkich pieniędzy, które bezsprzecznie rządzą dzisiejszym sportem, prawa ze znaków towarowych, obok praw do transmisji z wydarzeń sportowych, zyskują dla wszystkich sportowych jednostek organizacyjnych znaczenia kluczowego. Kluby, związki i federacje sportowe czerpią zyski z praw do znaków towarowych, głównie poprzez udzielanie przedsiębiorcom licencji na ich używanie. Proces ten najłatwiej zaobserwować  przy okazji organizacji dużych wydarzeń sportowych.

Jako cel badań niżej podpisany obrał wskazanie prawnych zasad zarządzania znakami towarowymi w sporcie, w obliczu ich ciągle rosnącego znaczenia. Publikacja obejmie prezentację sposób i zasady wykorzystywania zarejestrowanych już znaków sportowych przez sportowe jednostki organizacyjne, a także płynących stąd korzyści. Realizacja celu badawczego będzie dokonywana, przede wszystkim, przy zastosowaniu metody dogmatycznej. Analizie poddane zostaną akty prawa krajowego i unijnego. Podejmowana problematyka rodzi jednak konieczność uwzględnienia dorobku także innych nauk, zwłaszcza marketingu, biznesu i ekonomii. Wśród materiałów poddanych analizie, oprócz aktów prawa powszechnie wymienić należy także dane zgromadzonych w rejestrach znaków towarowych UP RP i OHIM. Za główny wniosek płynącym z niniejszego opracowania uznać należy konstatację, iż jakość w nowoczesnym sporcie przejawia się również, a w kwestii finansowej być może przede wszystkim, w jakości zarządzania znakami towarowymi.



Abstract

                    By getting the right protection for national trade mark, it is understood use of the mark for profit or for professional purposes throughout the territory of Poland. In contrast, a similar right conferred by a Community trade mark, concerns the application of the mark throughout the Community. Use of the mark is in particular the placement of the sign to the goods covered by the right of protection or their packaging, delivering and placing the goods on the market, import or export, as well as offering or providing services under that mark and the use of such a sign for advertising purposes. In the era of big money that undoubtedly govern the sport today, the law of trademarks, beside the rights to broadcast sporting events, gaining for all sporting significance of key organizational units. Clubs, associations and sports federations benefit from trademark rights, principally through the granting of licenses to entrepreneurs to use them. This process is most easily seen by the way the organization of major sporting events.

                    As the aim of the research undersigned has chosen an indication of the legal rules governing trademarks in sports, in the face of ever increasing significance. The publication will include a presentation method and rules for the use of sports characters already registered by sports entities, as well as the benefits flowing from here. The implementation of the research will be carried out primarily by the method dogmatic. The analysis will be subject to national laws and EU. Taken the issue arises, however, need to take into account the achievements of other sciences, especially marketing, business and economics. Among the materials analyzed, in addition to the acts of commonly mention should also be stored in the data registers trademarks UP RP and OHIM. Behind the main conclusion flowing from this report should be regarded assertion that quality in modern sports, also manifests itself, and the financial aspects, perhaps above all, the quality of management of trademarks.

Trade financing shares a number of common characteristics with traditional value chain activities conducted by all firms
All companies must search out suppliers for goods and services
Must determine if supplier can provide products at required specifications and quality
All must be at an acceptable price and delivered in a timely manner

Understanding the nature of the relationship between the exporter and the importer is critical to understanding the methods for import-export financing utilised in industry.

Three categories of relationships:

Unaffiliated unknown party
Unaffiliated known party
Affiliated party

This paper deals with the registrability of non-conventional marks after the EU reform of trade marks and some technological developments, including the Internet of Things (IoT). Even if olfactory marks (scents or smells) are the chosen prism, most considerations apply also to other non-conventional marks, such as holograms, movements, and tastes. In the UK, whereas in theory olfactory trade marks can be registered, there have not been successful applications since the EU Court of Justice's decision in Ralf Sieckmann v Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt. This paper suggests that scents may be more easily registered in the near future as a consequence of the EU reform of trade marks and of technological innovation. The impact of Brexit is critically assessed and the implementation of the EU reform is foreseen.
The yet-to-be-transposed Trade Marks Directive introduces a new definition of trade marks where the graphic representation of the mark is no longer required. Under the new regime, those who want to register a smell will only need to represent it ‘in a manner which enables the competent authorities and the public to determine the clear and precise subject matter of the protection afforded to its proprietor’ (art 3(b)). Some difficulties may remain because the Trade Marks Directive incorporated the so-called Sieckmann criteria, that the (then graphical) representation must be ‘clear, precise, self-contained, easily accessible, intelligible, durable and objective’ (recital 13). However, even not going as far as arguing that ‘the amendments will abolish the Sieckmann judgement’ (Sahin 2016, 513), it is not excluded that the seven criteria may be interpreted differently in the future, for example as meaning that a combination of description, chemical formula and sample may meet the new requirements for registration. Indeed, with the new definition of trade marks there is a shift from the ‘how’ to the ‘who’. It is immaterial how the trade mark is represented (whether graphically or otherwise), as long as the competent authorities and the public can determine the subject matter of the protection. Arguably, the said combination of description, chemical formula, and sample may suffice from the authorities’ perspective. When it comes to the public, it is likely that this requirement will be absorbed by the distinctiveness. An unusual scent used consistently on a range of products or services of a single undertaking and accompanied by heavy advertising would easily put the public in the position to determine the subject matter of the protection, especially if distinctiveness is acquired through use; thus, the requirement could be easily made out. One could foresee a return to the case law ante Sieckmann that valued the customers’ viewpoint and stated, for instance, that an olfactory mark described as freshly cut grass will be recognised immediately by anyone, reminding ‘of spring, or summer, manicured lawns or playing fields, or other such pleasant experiences’ (Senta Aromatic [14]). The customers’ scent-related power of imagination cannot be underestimated. A number of scents can evoke clear memories and feelings.

Civil procedure of trademark enforcement runs in Pakistan under Trade Marks Ordinance 2001, Code of Civil Procedure 1908 and Specific Relief Act 1877. Trademark is one of the components of Intellectual Property Law, it is a mark, name, sign, smell or a sound which distinguishes goods and services of one undertaking from goods and services of other undertakings. It is required to be distinctiveness and non-descriptive, it losses its distinctiveness when owner of registered trademark does not take prompt action against its infringement. The registered trademark owner may file civil suit against infringement of his registered trademark before the concerned District Court of Law for claiming damages and obtaining injunctions. The Trademark Registry works under Intellectual Property Organization of Pakistan (IPO-Pakistan) for registration and protection of trademarks in Pakistan. Similarly, Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia (MyIPO) is empowered agency of trademark registration and its protection in Malaysia. The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) is responsible for registration and protection of trademarks in United States of America (USA). Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) is the only International Treaty which contains exhaustive provisions on trademark enforcement includes civil procedure, administrative procedure, criminal procedure, provisional and border measures. Important civil procedure of trademark enforcement issues need to be clarified in trademark law of Pakistan includes trademark infringement, trademark dilution and rectification of trademark register. This article is comparative analysis of civil procedure of trademark enforcement in Pakistan, Malaysia and USA.

INQUADRAMENTO - Il marchio è un segno graficamente rappresentabile, su cui il titolare ha un diritto esclusivo, idoneo e finalizzato ad identificare, distinguere e promuovere i prodotti ed i servizi di una determinata impresa. Altri mezzi di espressione qualificabili come segni distintivi, per la loro capacità di permettere al pubblico un collegamento tra gli stessi e le realtà cui si riferiscono, sono: il marchio non registrato (o "di fatto"), la ditta, la denominazione sociale, l'insegna, il nome a dominio e le indicazioni geografiche.
NOVITA' - Con la sentenza Cass. S.U. 17927/2008 è stata definitivamente risolta la questione relativa alla convalida del marchio (art. 28 c.p.i.). Si tratta di una disposizione di carattere processuale, che statuisce una vera e propria decadenza (quinquennale) dall'esercizio dell'azione di nullità o contraffazione; peraltro evitabile solo per mezzo dell'esercizio di azioni giudiziali (la citazione introduttiva del giudizio di nullità o di contraffazione appunto o comunque il ricorso per l'inibitoria dell'uso del segno posteriore).
APPLICAZIONI - Il titolare di un marchio può decidere di darlo in licenza a terzi, così da permetterne l'uso dietro pagamento di royalties, mantenendone la proprietà. Il licenziante, per mezzo del contratto stipulato con il licenziatario, può anche controllare l'attività di quest'ultimo, ad esempio per garantire il mantenimento di un certo grado di qualità ai prodotti e/o servizi riproducenti il proprio segno distintivo.
PROFILI PROCESSUALI/PENALI - I diritti di proprietà industriale consentono al titolare della privativa violata, di richiedere l'intervento dell'autorità doganale (ad esempio al fine di ottenere la sospensione dello svincolo delle merci o il loro blocco), nonché di agire giudizialmente, sia in sede civile (esclusivamente di fronte alle apposite sezioni specializzate in materia di impresa) che in sede penale (soltanto ove sussista il dolo del contraffattore) ciò comportando anche il possibile sequestro dei prodotti contraffatti.
QUESITI E SOLUZIONI - La semplice registrazione di una denominazione sociale simile a un marchio registrato, può essere considerata una violazione dei diritti di privativa del titolare di quello stesso segno distintivo? Il titolare del marchio d'impresa registrato ha la facoltà di farne uso esclusivo, così da poter vietare a terzi l'utilizzo a fini commerciali, sotto qualsiasi forma, di un segno o una denominazione identici o simili. A tal proposito merita notare che anche "l'atto formale di iscrizione presso il registro delle imprese di una società avente la ragione sociale che evoca inequivocabilmente un marchio registrato costituisce già di per se una lesione dei diritto di privativa che origina dalla registrazione del marchio, ossia una forma di interferenza illecita rispetto a tale diritto"; ciò, dunque, a prescindere dall'aver già intrapreso o meno l'attività.

"The thesis Forensic analysis of graphic trademarks aims at using insights from Multimodal Social Semiotics (MSS) in the pursuit of trademark counterfeiters. It proposes a method of comparative analysis of graphic trademarks, which is an improvement over the current state of the art in trademark practice, the so-called “assessment of likelihood of confusion”. In other words, the undertaking in the thesis falls within the overall scope of forensic science. More specifically, the thesis sets out to answer the question: “How can a Multimodal Social Semiotic approach to graphic form be made applicable in a forensic comparative analysis of two-dimensional graphic trademarks in order to make the assessment of likelihood of confusion more (i) systematic, (ii) precise, (iii) measurable and (iv) comparable”? The thesis concludes that, overall, MSS is very apt as a theoretical framework for such analysis. However, because of the stylistic nature of the similarities between the trademarks in many trademark infringement cases, and because MSS does not have the descriptive readiness for the expression plane of graphics, the thesis also concludes that MSS in its current state of development falls short of capturing the similarities and differences of the trademarks in the 12 cases of the corpus in a systematic, precise, measurable and comparable way. The thesis responds to this lack by developing a theory of the expression plane of graphics within the Hallidayian architecture of stratification. This entails the description of graphic expression at a diachronic, graphetic- and a synchronic, graphological stratum. Hallidayian “Systemic Functional Linguistics”, from which MSS and thus also this thesis has inherited its key heuristics, has been developed as a theory of language. In order to cater for the fact that trademarks are not language and have very different conditions for articulation and perception than language, the proposed graphetic and graphological approach to analysis of trademarks have been developed within an overarching ecosocial framework with the act of graphic articulation at the core. In the thesis, acts of graphic articulation are regarded as pivotal in graphic events at many timescales: The logogenetic “event of confusion”, in which a trademark is (potentially) mistaken for another trademark, the ontogenetic growth of graphic literacy in the individual and the phylogenetic emergence of graphic conventions. The setting of the suggestions for forensic comparative analysis within an ecosocial framework is precisely what makes them compatible with “the event of confusion” in trademark practice. The compatibility rests on the correlation of the event of confusion in trademark practice and the logogenetic event of social semiotics. In order to answer the research question, the thesis goes through a series of steps: Chapter 2, “Design of the Inquiry”, discusses certain aspects of the knowledge production of the thesis. The fact that the thesis straddles three very different fields of knowledge, (i) trademark practice, (ii) graphic design and (iii) MSS, poses a challenge, because each field has its own version of what trademarks are and how their function should be understood. Crucially, the discussion revolves around the event of confusion. The event of confusion is a concept proposed in the thesis in order to mark out a common ground, which can accommodate all three professional practices. It is the event during which someone is exposed to a trademark and either recognizes it or mistakes it. Traditionally, trademark practice has regarded what happens in the event of confusion as a psychological perception-event, which takes place in the minds of consumers. However, the thesis suggests regarding the event of confusion as a social, communicative event. This entails regarding the event of confusion as an event during which semiotic resources, which are shared by the communicating parties, are instantiated in an event of articulation as well an event of perception. Chapter 3, “State of the art”, gives a survey of semiotic approaches to trademarks based on selected literature. The aim is to determine whether previous descriptions of trademarks can provide a starting point for an analytical scheme, which is adequate for forensic purposes. Concentrating on literature from (i) trademark practice, (ii) marketing and branding theory and (iii) graphic design practice, it concludes that the typological nature of their models makes them unable to analytically capture the kind of differences and similarities in cases like the ones in the corpus of the thesis. Chapter 4, “Multimodal Social Semiotics”, gives a general introduction to the social semiotic paradigm and discusses the origin of MSS in Michaels Halliday’s SFL. The discussion revolves around the status of the communicative system in social semiotic theory. There are two fundamentally different ways of regarding the system, one diachronic ...

The goal of this study is to see if and how branding and the trademark system may be utilized in a commercial setting in Sri Lanka to extract value from tourism-related products and services.
The research emphasizes the relevance of unique signs, such as trademarks, collective and certification marks, and geographical indicators, in the context of tourist promotion from an intellectual property standpoint. This study uses a systematic literature review technique to explain the most current academic contributions in order to explore the use of the trademark system to brand touristic offers.
The findings of this study show that, although being a popular tourist destination, Sri Lanka has just scratched the surface of its real potential for tourism marketing through the use of branding and the country's trademark system. This paper provides tourism stakeholders with useful information for making efficient use of trademark rights in the tourist industry, as well as suggestions for future academic study. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first study paper to look into the usage of branding and trademark systems in the Sri Lankan tourist sector.
Keywords: Intellectual Property, Branding, Trademark, Tourism.

ÖZET İnternet günümüzde artık en önemli reklam platformlarından biri haline gelmiştir. İnternet reklam çeşitlerinden biri anahtar kelime reklamcılığı olup, bu alanda dünyada en çok kullanılanı Google Adwords reklamlarıdır. Adwords reklamlarda, reklam verenler anahtar kelime olarak jenerik kelimelerin yanı sıra başkalarına ait tescilli markaları da seçebilmektedirler. Bu halde, belirli bir markanın anahtar kelime olarak arama motorunda aranması sonucunda reklam veren işletmelerin reklamları doğal arama sonuçlarının üst veya sol taraflarında sponsor bağlantılar/reklam bölümünde görüntülenmektedir. Bu durum ise, marka sahipleri tarafından ikame edilen çeşitli markaya tecavüz davalarına konu olmaktadır. Avrupa Birliği Adalet Divanı'nın konu ile ilgili emsal kararları bulunmakta olup Divan'ın klasik anlamda markaya tecavüz hallerini internet ortamına adapte etmiş olduğu görülmektedir. Diğer taraftan ülkemizde ise, internette bir başkasına ait markanın anahtar kelime kullanımı suretiyle markaya tecavüz hali, klasik anlamda tecavüz halleri ile aynı uygulamalara tabi tutulmakta ve somut olayın özellikleri incelenmeksizin otomatikman tecavüzün varlığına karar verilmektedir.

Entertainment law is interlaced with various legal fields and covers a variety of areas in the entertainment industry, including film, broadcasting, music, theatre, and publishing. The players are even more varied: performers; their managers and agents; the creators of artistic works; the owners of theatres and festival grounds; broadcasters and publishers, distributors, and advertising agencies; the big brands that use celebrities to endorse their products; and the government as a regulator. Entertainment law serves not only the talent that performs in the entertainment industry but also the production aspects of creating entertainment content, as well as ensuring the sustainability of the industry.  The field of entertainment law is a complex one that spans the subjects of contracts, company law, including accompanying contracts, copyright, litigation, and licensing issues, and sometimes other concerns that pertain to employment, securities, competition, and taxation law. Additionally, the entertainment business is made up of many different businesses, each with its own peculiarities. For instance, the film business is different from the television business. The music business is different from the live theatrical performance business. While there are many similarities, the intricacies of each of the businesses can be overwhelming. Entertainment law plays a key role in the entertainment business, including in the areas of business formations, contracts dealing with compilation and synchronisation licenses, brand partnerships, and the exploitation of intellectual property rights, as well as recording, publishing, merchandising, and talent management arrangements.

Ulusal ve uluslararası mevzuatlarda yerini alan marka kavramı süregelen zaman içerisinde birçok farklı türüyle hukuk aleminde özel ve önemli bir yer edinmiştir. Ülkemizde marka konusu ilk olarak 1995 yılında 556 sayılı Markaların Korunması Hakkında Kanun Hükmünde Kararname ile kodifiye edilmiştir. Akabinde ilgili KHK’nın mülga olmasıyla 10 Ocak 2017 tarihinde Resmi Gazetede yayımlanan 6769 Sayılı Sinai Mülkiyet Kanunu yürürlüğe girmiştir. Kanun’un 4.maddesinde marka kavramının tanımına yer vermiştir. Bu tanımla beraber marka olabilme koşullarına yeni bir koşul daha eklenerek; markanın işaret, ayırt etmeyi sağlama ve koruma konusunun kesin ve açık olarak anlaşılmasını sağlama olmak üzere üç temel düzlemde incelenmesi olanak tanımıştır.