Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering

High Voltage Engineering 2

Insulation Co-ordination
Andrew Swanson
July 17, 2017
Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Definitions 3

3 Electrical Characteristics 4

4 Lightning Performance 5
4.1 Shielding and Shielding Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Backflashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3.1 Insulator String Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3.2 Volt-Time Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Switching Performance 11
5.1 Switching Impulse Strength of Airgaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6 Transformers 12
6.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7 Surge Arresters 14
7.1 Types of Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.2 Specification of Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2.1 Continuous Operating Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2.2 Rated Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2.3 Nominal Discharge Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2.4 Line Discharge Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.3 Location of Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.4 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1
1 Introduction
Insulation co-ordination is the process of co-ordinating electric equipment in-
sulation strength with protective devices. In a substation the insulation of the
equipment needs to be able to withstand voltages greater than that of the pro-
tective device [1]. In a typical transmission system the insulation needs to be
capable of withstanding the normal operating voltage as well as the conditions
of:
Temporary overvoltages
Switching overvoltages

Lightning overvoltages
It is uneconomical to provide perfect insulation to withstand all overvoltages as
such the insulation and protection devices are designed and selected to ensure
that the system and the equipment can withstand these overvoltages with a
small acceptable probability of failure. The process of insulation co-ordination
is to ensure the correct equipment withstand capabilities, sufficient clearances
and protection are accounted for.

There is a statistical nature to overvoltages and these can be calculated through

the use of simulation. Probability of overvoltage occurring (represented by a
probability distribution function or Gaussian distribution curve) can be com-
pared with the probability of insulation breakdown represented by a cumulative
distribution function to find a risk of failure [1].

P0 (U ) Pb (U )

Uk U

Figure 1: Method of Describing Risk of Failure

The probability that the gap will breakdown at Uk is given by Po (Uk )Pb (Uk )dU .
The total probability of failure (or risk of failure) is given by [1]:
Z
R= Po (U )Pb (U )dU (1)
0

2
 P0 (U ) Pb (U )

Uk U

Figure 2: Influence of Protective Devices on Risk of Failure

2 Definitions
Basic Insulation Level or BIL - The rated withstand voltage for insulation
expressed as a peak value of the standard lightning impulse under standard
atmospheric conditions [2].

Switching Insulation Level or SIL (or BSL) - The rated withstand volt-
age for insulation expressed as a peak value for the standard switching impulse
under standard atmospheric conditions [2].

3
3 Electrical Characteristics
Standard insulation withstand voltages are shown in the table below. The with-
stand voltages account for the high altitude of up to 1 800 m and ground flash
densities of 8 flashes/km2 /year found in South Africa [3].

The nominal voltage is commonly referred to as Un and the maximum voltage

is referred to
as Um . Conversion to phase to earth voltage is found through
division by 3.
Um
Uphaseearth = (2)
3

Table 1: Standard SANS/IEC System Voltages

Nominal Maximum Power Frequency Lightning Impulse Switching Impulse

Voltage Voltage Withstand Voltage Withstand Voltage Withstand Voltage
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV peak) (kV peak)

11 12 28 75/95 -
22 24 50 125/150 -
33 36 70 170/200 -
44 52 95 250 -
66 72.5 140 350 -
88 100 150/185 380/450 -
132 145 230/275 550/650 -
275 300 460 1050 850
400 420 630 1425 1050
765 - - 2100 1550

4
4 Lightning Performance
Lightning may cause the insulation to flashover in the two ways.
Due to direct strikes i.e. a shielding failure
Due to strikes intercepted by the shield wire or tower i.e. backflashover
The probability of a negative lightning stroke occurring in excess of Ip is given
by [4]:
1
P = I
(3)
1 + ( 31p )2.6

4.1 Shielding and Shielding Failure

The average number of strikes that a line may receive is given by Erikssons
equation [5]:
28h0.6 + b
 
NS = Ng (4)
10

Figure 3: Strike Distance and Shielding

The empirical equation for the attractive radius given by [4]:

Ra = 0.67ht0.67 I 0.74 (5)

Shielding failure occurs when the lightning terminates on the phase conductor
rather than the shield wire and also leads to the concept of shielding failure
flashover. Perfect shielding is given where the minimum lightning current causes
flashover:
2U50
Icrit = (6)
Z0
Where U50 is the flashover voltage and Z0 the surge impedance of the line.

The shielding separation is given by [4]:

q
Xsp = Rs Rp2 (Ys Yp )2 (7)

5
And the angle is given by [4]
 
Xsp
= tan1 (8)
Ys Yp

The approach ensures that the remaining shielding failure is too weak to cause
flashover i.e. I < Icrit [4].

6
4.2 Example 1
A transmission line is situated in an area with ground flash density of 7 strikes/km2 /year
and has a shielding wire at 10 m and a phase conductor at 8 m. The phase con-
ductor has an insulator flashover voltage (U50 ) of 240 kV and a surge impedance
of 200 .

Determine the number of strikes per 100 km per year to the line.
Determine Icrit .
Determine the optimal separation distance and angle for perfect shielding.

Determine the probability of a lightning strike causing a shielding failure.

7
4.3 Backflashover
4.3.1 Insulator String Voltage
The voltage across an insulator string due to a direct lightning strike on a tower
will consist of the voltage across the tower, the voltage across the shield wires,
the 50 Hz component of the voltage on the phase and the induced voltage on the
phase conductor[4]. Due to the travelling wave phenomena, various reflections
will occur due to the unmatched surge impedances.

Figure 4: Voltage Across an Insulator String

The reflection and the corresponding transmission coefficients are given by [4]:

Z2 Z1
r = (9)
Z1 + Z2

t = 1 + r (10)
If Z2 is an open circuit, voltage doubling occurs and if Z2 is a short circuit.

Figure 5: Representation of the surge impedances

8
The initial voltage at the top of the tower while not considering reflections is
given by [4]:
 1
1 2
U0 = i(t) + (11)
Zt Zs
The time before propagates to the base of the tower given by [4]:

h
= (12)
v
Where v is the propagation velocity.

The voltage across the insulator is given by [4]:

Uinsulator = Utower + U50Hz kUtower (13)

4.3.2 Volt-Time Curve

Volt-time curve for impulse flashover strength is given by [4]:
 
710
U (t) = 400 + 0.75 W (14)
t

Where:
t = time to flashover
W = insulator length

Figure 6: Volt-time curve and Insulator Voltage

9
4.4 Example 2
A 275 kV transmission tower with a height of 25m has a surge impedance of
200 connected to a shield wire of 400 and an earth resistance of 100 . The
conductor is connected to the tower by a 2.5m long insulator. The transmission
tower is struck by lightning with a rise time of 5.5s and a peak current of 30
kA. (The propagation velocity of the tower is 0.8c). The coupling factor of the
line is k = 0.12 and the ground flash density is 8 strikes per km2 per year.

Determine the peak voltage across the insulator string and if flashover
occurs.

Determine the number of insulator discs required if each has an expected

flashover voltage of 125 kV in dry weather.
Determine the probability of flashover occurrence on a 100 km line.
Determine the peak voltage across the insulator if the earth resistance is
decreased to 30 .

10
5 Switching Performance
Switching surges characteristically have lower peak amplitude but greater energy
than lightning surges. Switching overvoltages are caused by [6]:
Closing and reclosing of a transmission line - As the line has resistance, ca-
pacitance and inductance, a switching operation will involve transient phe-
nomena. Switching an unloaded line may produce overvoltages of above
2 p.u.
Switching of capacitive currents - Including capacitor banks, unloaded
lines and cables. It involves interruption of small capacitive currents at
peak voltage.
Switching of inductive current - Including interrupting of small inductive
currents of unloaded transformers and shunt reactors. The high di/dt
associated with current chopping results in high induced voltage.

Initiation and clearing of system faults - A short circuit phase to earth

fault may be accompanied by an increase in neutral potential. When
this fault occurs at the peak voltage, an overvoltage of 2.7 p.u. may be
produced.

5.1 Switching Impulse Strength of Airgaps

For standard atmospheric conditions [7].
3400
V50 = k (15)
1 + d8

Table 2: Gap Factor [7]

Configuration Gap factor (k)

Rod-plane 1.00
Rod-rod (vertical) 1.30
Rod-rod (horizontal) 1.35
Conductor-lateral structure 1.30
Conductor-plane 1.15

11
6 Transformers
High voltage transformers (and reactors) consist of multiple layers of windings
around a magnetic core.

Figure 7: Transformer Windings

dVx L Cs

ix

..
. Cp

V (t) L Cs
Cp

L Cs
Cp

L Cs

Figure 8: Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Under normal operating conditions the circuit above reduces to the induc-

12
tance and the voltage distribution is linear, under transient conditions the ca-
pacitance plays a role and the voltage distribution could be non-linear.

d2 V x dix
= Xc (16)
dn2 dn q
C
sinh ( Cps n)
Vx = V q (17)
C
sinh ( Cps N )

Additionally a transient could excite the resonant frequency of the transformer.

6.1 Example
Consider a reactor with 5 layers with an interlayer inductance of 100 H per
layer, a interwinding capacitance of 150 pF and a capacitance to earth of 10
pF. Draw the voltage distribution for 50 Hz and when a very fast transient is
applied (i.e. when the capacitance is dominant). Note: The example is not
indicative of a real piece of equipment, it is merely illustrating a point

13
7 Surge Arresters
The application of surge arresters is a component of insulation co-ordination and
they are used to protect against unwanted overvoltages. It is not only a matter
of understanding the transient overvoltages caused by switching and lightning
as it is necessary for the surge arrester to operate under normal and temporary
overvoltage conditions [8].

5
Magnitude of overvoltage

t
Lightning Switching Temporary Highest system
overvoltages overvoltages overvoltages voltage
(s) (ms) (s) (Continuous)

Figure 9:Representation of Magnitudes of Overvoltages against Time where

1 p.u. = 23 Us [8]

14
7.1 Types of Surge Arresters

v v

t t

Figure 10: Types of Surge Arresters

1000
v (V /mm)

100

10 7
10 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 101 102 103

i (A/cm2 )

Figure 11: Voltage-Current Characteristics of a ZnO and SiC Arresters

15
 Table 3: Typical Surge Arrester Characteristics - ABB PEXLIM Q [9]

Maximum Rated Max. Cont. TOV Max. residual voltage

Voltage Voltage Operating Capabiilty 30/60s 8/20s
Voltage 1s/10s 0.5kA/1kA/2kA 5kA/10kA/20kA/40kA
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV peak) (kV peak)

420 330 264 379/363 634/654/680 737/776/854/954

336 267 386/369 646/666/692 751/790/860/972
342 267 393/376 657/678/705 764/804/885/989
360 267 414/396 692/714/742 804/846/931/1046

7.2 Specification of Surge Arresters

7.2.1 Continuous Operating Voltage
The continuous operating voltage is found by the maximum voltage of the sys-
tem multiplied by a factor (of at least 5% to account for harmonic content) that
is dependent on earthing [8].

Um
Uc = 1.05 (18)
3

7.2.2 Rated Voltage

The rated voltage of the arrester is determined by the temporary overvoltage
that occur in the system. The min rated voltage can be determined by empiri-
cally [8].
Ur = 1.25 Uc (19)

7.2.3 Nominal Discharge Current

The nominal discharge current is selected based in the lightning discharge cur-
rent through the arrester. The selection of the class is based on the location of
the arrester within a system. IEC 60099-4 defines the following values, where
the value is for classification purposes as the arrester can readily handle a higher
discharge current [10].

Table 4: Nominal discharge current classification

2.5kA 5kA 10kA 20kA

Ur 36 Ur 132 2 Ur 360 360 Ur 756

7.2.4 Line Discharge Class

The line discharge class is the determining characteristic of the arrester and
is a means of specifying the energy absorption capability of the arrester. The
definition differs between manufacturers.

16
7.3 Location of Surge Arresters
The specified surge arrester will offer optimum protection when installed across
the terminals of the equipment to be protected. This is, however, often not prac-
tically possible and a separation distance will exist; due to the inductance and
travelling wave effects, fast transients such as lightning overvoltages can cause
a potentially harmful voltage difference between the arrester and the equip-
ment [6].

The voltage at the protected equipment can be estimated through a simplified

expression [6]:
2 (d + a) S
Uequip = Ua + (20)
v

Where:
Ua = residual voltage of the surge arrester
d = distance between arrester and equipment including lead lengths
a = length of the surge arrester including lead lengths
S = steepness of incoming overvoltage
v = propagation velocity

The SANS/IEC 60099-5 recommends a technique to define a protective zone,

Lp = d + a, of the arrester [6, 11]:
 
N UBIL
Lp = Ua (Lsp Lf ) (21)
A 1.15

Where:
N = number of lines connected to the substation
A = performance factor of the incoming line
UBIL = rated lightning impulse withstand voltage
Ua = lightning impulse level protection of the surge arrester
Lsp = span length of the incoming overhead line
Lf = length of the overhead line section with rate equal to the acceptable failure rate

Table 5: Performance factor for incoming overhead line [6, 11]

Line Type Factor A (kV)

Transmission lines (1 to earth flashover)

Single conductor 4500
Double conductor bundle 7000
Four conductor bundle 11000
Six and eight conductor bundle 17000

17
7.4 Example 1
A 400 kV transmission system enters at a substation through a 4 conductor
bundle and a span length of 400 m. The transmission line is subjected to
numerous temporary overvoltages (some of which reach 35% Um ) and lightning
overvoltages.

Determine the continuous operating voltage, the rated voltage, and the
nominal discharge class.
Determine the protection distance for an arrester installed to protect a
transformer where the incoming surge has a steepness of 1000kV /s.

Determine if voltage at the transformer is within the BIL.

18
References
[1] E. Kuffel, W. Zaengl, and J. Kuffel, High Voltage Engineering: Fundamen-
tals, 2nd ed. Newnes, 2000.
[2] IEEE Std C62.82.1, IEEE Standard for Insulation Coordination - Defini-
tions, Principles and Rules. IEEE, 2012.
[3] SANS 1019, Specification for standard voltages, currents and insulation
levels for electrical supply. South African Bereau of Standards, 2008.
[4] W. Chisholm and J. Anderson, Chapter 6 - Lighting and Grounding. EPRI,
2005.
[5] S. Bisnath, A. Britten, and et al., Eskom Power Series: The planning,
design and construction of overhead power lines. Crown Publications,
2005.
[6] A. Haddad and D. Warne, Eds., Advances in High Voltage Engineering.
The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2004.
[7] IEEE Std 1427, IEEE Guide for Recommended Electrical Clearances and
Insulation Levels in Air-Insulated Electrical Power Substations. IEEE,
2006.

[8] V. Hinrichsen, Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters in High-Voltage Power Sys-

tems. Siemens, 2011.
[9] ABB, ABB Surge Arresters Buyers Guide Edition 9.2. ABB, 2012.
[10] SANS 60099-4, Surge arresters - Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters with-
out gaps for a.c. systems. South African Bereau of Standards, 2009.

[11] SANS 60099-5, Surge arresters - Part 5: Selection and application recom-
mendations. South African Bereau of Standards, 2007.

19
Tutorial Questions
Question 1
Some of the insulation on a 25 kV railway system, located at 1700 m above
sea level, is failing. The system has insulation specified for Um = 36 kV and a
BIL of 170 kV. Determine if the correct system voltages have been used in the
specification and determine the withstand voltages for the high altitude system.

Question 2
A transmission line is situated in an area with ground flash density of 7 strikes/km2 /year
and has a shielding wire at 25 m and a phase conductor at 20 m. The phase con-
ductor has an insulator flashover voltage (U50 ) of 980 kV and a surge impedance
of 240 .

Determine the number of strikes per 100 km per year to the line.
Determine Icrit .
Determine the optimal separation distance and angle for perfect shielding.
Determine the probability of a lightning strike causing a shielding failure.

Question 3
A 400 kV transmission tower with a height of 32m has a surge impedance of
280 connected to a shield wire of 560 and an earth resistance of 80 . The
conductor is connected to the tower by a 3.5m long insulator. The transmission
tower is struck by lightning with a rise time of 2.5s and a peak current of 37
kA. (The propagation velocity of the tower is 0.8c).

Determine the peak voltage across the insulator string and if flashover
occurs.
Determine the number of insulator discs required if each has an expected
flashover voltage of 125 kV in dry weather.

Determine the probability of flashover occurrence on a 100 km line.

Determine the peak voltage across the insulator if the earth resistance is
decreased to 30 .

Consider that the air gap can represented by a rod-rod gap, determine the
switching impulse flashover voltage and compare to the peak lightning flashover
voltage. If the switching surge has a peak value of 2.2 p.u.; determine the
maximum insulator length required to prevent flashover.

20
Question 4
A silicon carbide (SiC) surge arrester has resistive elements with non-linear
characteristics described by R = 2600I 0.75 . The arresters are to be installed
at the end of an 11kV distribution line. Considering the characteristics of the
surge arrester:

Determine the rms current that will flow through through each arrester
under normal operating conditions.
Determine the dissipated power.

Comment on the calculated values. Is there a problem?

Compare the SiC to a metal oxide arrester.

Question 5
An overvoltage travels on a 33 kV overhead line with a propagation velocity of
v = c and steepness of S = 800kV /s. A metal oxide surge arrester is to be
installed in front of a transformer, where the distance between the arrester and
transformer is 30 m.

Determine the voltage at the transformer if the surge arrester has a resid-
ual voltage of 102 kV.
Comment on why there is an increase in voltage at the transformer.

With a single incoming conductor A = 4500 and a span of 100m; determine

the BIL of the transformer and determine the protection distance that
should be used.

21