H. Bayram SOY

Title: Reflections of the Ottoman-German Convergence on Cartoons during the Reign of Abdul Hamid II.

During the last two centuries, by means of mass media it has increasingly become possible to affect both society and individual. One of these tools is cartoon. By the end of the 20th century, cartoons become widespread through journals and newspapers. Cartoons can be described shortly as meaning attributed images. They are usually used either exaggerating or simplifying the events or persons. For sure it can cover all phases of life, but cartoons are very common for political and social satirizing. By adding to a single sentence, or a simple dialog, a cartoon can easily effect subconscious and can make a message more comprehensible. And by quickening the perception, it makes the massage more persistent in the memory. Moreover, it is also usually possible to describe an event or a deed of a person by a cartoon, where one cannot do it maybe by many sentences or by a book. Because of these features, cartoons are also very useful sources in researching and understanding both political and social implications of present or past.

During the 19th century, the Ottomans sought the Great Powers’ backing for survival. In this period, especially the Ottoman-British relations was very close, and the British supported the Ottomans until the last quarter of the century. However, because of the defeat of the Ottomans in the war against the Russians (1877-1878), and the British attitude leaving the Ottomans alone before and during the Berlin Congress of 1878, Abdul Hamid II looked for another Great Powers’ support, against the Russian threat. From this time onwards, Germany appears to be the main supporter of the reign of Abdul Hamid II.

The nature of the reign of Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) has always been a matter of debate, both at home and abroad. The personality of the sultan and his politics have been heavily criticized. The main criticism among the Great Powers was about his politics regarding the Christian subjects, especially in the Balkans. And at home he was criticized about his “despotic” regime. These critics are also traceable in the satirical character of cartoons of the period. Because of these criticisms, from the early years of Abdul Hamid II’s reign, although they were not in a great number, the Ottoman cartoonists were prosecuted and humor journals were sealed off. Having no other choice, the owners of the journals or caricaturists left for Paris, Geneva, and Cairo etc. and continued their publishing there. Nearly all of these cartoonists and the publishers who fled to the outside of the country were opponents of Abdul Hamid II’s reign.

In the European cartoons of the period, because of the delay of the reforms regarding the Christian subjects, the Ottoman Empire and personally Abdul Hamid II were generally described as a sick man or an amputated patient for a cure lying on the bed around which the Great Powers were waiting curiously. It can be seen in these cartoons that Germany was generally depicted either as the protector of the “cruel” Abdul Hamid II, or the puppeteer of Ottomans, rather than reflecting the mutual good relations that resulted in the developments on military, economic, and commercial affairs. In Germany, like Abdul Hamid II, Wilhelm II was also not tolerant against the cartoonists. They were also prosecuted and sentenced. The “cruelty” and “tyranny” of Abdul Hamid II were generally the main idea and topic in the Ottoman cartoons drawn at home or among the relegated cartoonists.

Title: Was the First World War Made to Divide the Ottoman Empire? Revisiting the Wars' Causes in the Context of the Ottoman Empire.

The agreement signed between Britain and Germany in 15th June, 1914 concerning the interests in the Ottoman Empire, did resolve the disagreements and conflicts between these countries in the Ottoman soil which was a part of the Great Powers struggle for gaining influence in the Ottoman Empire for a long time. In terms of their interests in the Ottoman territories, Germany not only reconciled with Britain, but also with Russia and France. In other words, before the First World War Germany, the rising power of Europe or even the world, did settle the problems occurred in the Ottoman Empire with the respecting powers which was the part of the struggle caused by colonial, overseas trade and armament races worldwide against the other Great Powers. However, the problems and conflicting interests of Britain and Germany worldwide, and Austria-Hungarian and Russian in the Balkans did cause a war until then the greatest war ever humanity has witnessed.

Title: From the Ottoman- Russian War in 1877-1878 to the NATO Membership: The Straits Question and Turkey’s “Alliance” with the West.

From the middle of the 19th century onwards, whose territorial integrity left to the Great Powers assurance, the Ottoman Empire remained in between the Russo-British struggle in the Near East. Britain tried to resist the Russian march towards the south by keeping the Ottoman territorial unity. After the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877-78, when the Ottomans were defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of St. Stefano, the British being disturbed by the new situation in the Balkans, initiated a congress in Berlin and modified it by the Berlin Treaty. Britain in doing this, did not consider the interests of the Ottoman Empire, but her own. In a similar condition, in 1945 when the USSR demanded a base in the Straits and revision of the Turkish northeastern borders, since it arouse old “Russian fear” in Turkey, they resorted to the US. In this period, having inherited the British Empire’s imperial mission, the Straits were also important for the US. Same as the British, the American would also not allow the Soviet Union crossing the Straits and penetrating to the Mediterranean. But Turkey did not recognize the US strategic vulnerability and by paying unnecessary prices, she got both economic and military aids from the US and bounded her to it. The prices paid for the security against the USSR to US are non-equivalent what Turkey gained from the US both military assistance and economic aid. However, how Britain did not allow the Russians to threaten the Straits in 1878 by herself, so would the US and her allies stop the USSR in the Straits in 1945 by themselves. Because, although the political conditions and states alters, geostrategic position does not change.

Title: Empire for Sale: Decolonization of the British Empire.

Considering the controlled area and governed population, British Empire was the most powerful known empire. When the Empire was being constructed, tolerance was shown at home, but oppression abroad. The English people, while integrating the Welsh and Scottish people to the Empire, incorporating the formerly repulsed Jews, and embracing the expelled Huguenots, they built a relentless exploitation system, where the profit was flowing to the motherland, and did segregation, that caused increasingly reaction in the colonies where the colored people were living. In other words, they showed tolerance for the differences at home and in the “white dominions”, but they felt free in practicing oppression, persecution and massacre in the marginalized colored colonies. This discrimination showed its effect during the liberation movements very clearly. The tolerated colonies and subjects seceded from the empire peacefully, whereas those who were restrained and oppressed, gained their independence after bloodshed and revolt. Besides the upheavals caused by intolerance in the colonies, having economically collapsed due to the two World Wars, British Empire has fallen to the situation to be sold to her former colony to the United States.

Title: The German Policy towards the Ottoman Armenians (1888-1918).

Nationalist movements were one of the basic factors that effected the 19th century’s political developments. As one of the multi-national empires, the Ottomans have also been affected by these movements. In the course of time, these nationalist movements have become excuses for internal intervention for the Great Powers. The Great Powers approach towards the Ottoman Armenians must be evaluated within this frame. However, the Germans have pursued a benevolent policy to the Ottoman Empire concerning the Ottoman Armenians. Certainly this was in the course of German benefit. Since the Germans were in favor of the Ottoman perpetuity, the Armenian reforms were considered as a cause for the Ottoman end. Therefore, the reform pressures put on by England, who were joined by Russia by 1905 onwards, were resisted by Germany in favor of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire, who entered the First World War on the side of Germany, relocated her Armenian subject to today’s Syrian territories, since they cooperated with Russia and caused trouble in the home front. The Germans agreed with the decision which was taken due to military measures, and about the incidents occurred during the deportation, she remained silent, in order to not to lose the Ottoman alliance.

Title: The British Approach Towards the Young Turkish Revolution of 1908.

The Ottoman Empire suffered from the nationalist movements that prevailed throughout the 19th century. During this period, the Ottoman minorities became an instrument for the imperialist powers to interfere with the Ottoman internal problems. This was, according to the Young Turks, a threat for the lasting of the Empire and the only way preventing her, was to introduce a constitutional government, embracing all the Ottoman subjects. In achieving a constitutional government, they were relying on Britain and France. Although, they did not receive the firm support of the British Consul Heathcote in Monastir, the insurrection for a constitution began on 3rd July 1908, and Meşrutiyet was declared on 23/24th July. As expected, the reaction was positive in Europe, and particularly the King of England, Edward VII, personally send a greeting letter to Abdulhamid II. Although Britain officially welcomed the new regime, they were vigilant. Because, if the constitutional government would success here, Egypt and the Muslim subjects of India could also demand a constitution, which will embarrass Britain. But as to Grey, despite this fact, if there is a hope for this country, the Ottoman Empire should be supported in her new regime.

As time went on, there occurred a deep disappointment in Britain, since the Young Turks did not give up their secret activities and ruled behind the parliament. For the Englishmen, the constitutional government existed in name, but the practice was a martial law. Equality of the Ottoman subjects were frequently mentioned, but always violated during the daily life. “Turkification” policy of the Young Turks had brought the European Turkey near the point of bursting into flame. And even the close relations to Freemasonry and the Jews were criticized. The leaders of the new regime were accused for, failing in following the main principles of constitutional government, and failing in showing the required merits for more general approval in England. As a result, these British approaches towards the Young Turks, and since the hope of support of the Young Turks were not fulfilled by Britain, especially in foreign policy, inevitably pushed them to the side of Germany.

Title: According to German Foreign Ministry's Papers Germany's Approach Towards the Ottoman Armenians During the Period of Wilhelm II (Until 1914).

Nationalist movements were one of the basic features that effected the 19th century’s political developments. As one of the multinational empires, the Ottomans have also been affected by these movements. In the course of time, these nationalist movements have become excuses for internal intervention for the Great Powers. The Great Powers’ approach towards the Ottoman Armenians must be evaluated within this frame. However, the Germans have pursued a benevolent policy to the Ottoman Empire concerning the Ottoman Armenians. Certainly, this was also for the German benefit. Since the Germans were in favor of the Ottoman continuation, the Armenian reforms were considered as a cause for the Ottoman disintegration. Therefore, the reform pressures put on by England, who were joined by Russia by 1905 onwards, were resisted by Germany in favor of the Ottoman Empire.

Title: The Religious Motifs of the Second Eastern Journey (1898) of Wilhelm II which Took Place by Means of the Inauguration of the Erlöserkirsche in Jerusalem.

It is commonly agreed that the army was not the only instrument of the 19th century imperialism. Commercial representatives, schools, missionaries, hospitals and orphanages were used for imperialistic aims. Germany, who gained her political unity during the second half of the 19th century, has also made use of these experiences. Contrary to Bismarck, who wished to consolidate the empire, that he founded, in the continental Europe, Wilhelm II was in the opinion that Germany was to pursue Weltpolitik. Due to certain incompatibility, Bismarck resigned in 1890 and there remained no obscure for the Kaiser to practice his politics. One of the important steps of the Weltpolitik was gaining influence in the Ottoman Empire, both political and commercial. From 1882 onwards, the German officers were hired in the Ottoman army and the trade was developing gradually. Moreover, Wilhelm II was using every opportunity for developing the relations with the Ottoman Empire. During the reign of Sultan Abdulaziz, due to the efforts of Kaiser’s ancestors, a piece of land was granted to the Kingdom of Prussia in Jerusalem to build a Protestant church. To build a church on this land and to attend the inauguration ceremony was a great opportunity for Wilhelm II’s Ottoman policy. The foundation of the Erlöserkirche (The Church of the Redeemer) was laid in 1893 and completed in 1898. Wilhelm II, after visiting Istanbul, attended to the opening ceremony personally. The travel, in which the religious motifs were dominant, was in fact an openly challenge for Britain, France and Russia in the region. Because, including the sects which were under the protection of these great powers, every Christian sect and Jewish settlers in Palestine was visited and support was promised. By means of this journey, the wheels of German imperialism were revolved this time on religious senses to serve for the Weltpolitik.

Title: Lord Palmerston's Policy of Ottoman Integrity.

As the British tie to India strengthened and her trade developed in the East Mediterranean, the security of the Ottoman territories for Britain become much more concerned. All developments and the rivalry among the Great Powers have proven that, these territories should remain in the Ottoman hands. During the period when Palmerston was in charge (1830-1865) of the British politics, France was potentially dangerous for Britain, but the actual threat came from Russia to the British interests in the Ottoman territories. The Egyptian Revolt and the Crimean War were all struggles for Palmerston, for the security of the Indian route and the British trade, by keeping Russia away from the Black Sea and the Bosphorus. During these wars apparently the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was secured, but in fact, the British interests were defended. Palmerston proved the Ottoman integrity policy, which was decided by his predecessors, to be indispensable by his political practices and turned it over to his successors. The policy, which lasted nearly a century, was only shattered by the rout of the Ottoman armies against the Russians in the war of 1877-1878.

Title: A Letter Presented to Wilhelm II in 1898 by the Committee of Union and Progress.

The aims of the Committee of Union and Progress, which emerged during the last decade of the 19th century as an opposing movement against the rule of Abdulhamid II., were reopening the Parliament which was suspended in 1878, to process the Constitution of 1876 and in order to achieve these, dethroning the Sultan if needed. The Committee has also attempted to gain the support of the European Great Powers in reaching their goals.

At the end of 1898, Wilhelm II, the German Emperor, was going to stay in Istanbul for a while, during his second eastern journey, which was planned by means of the inauguration of a German Protestant Church (Erlöserkirche) in Jerusalem. By using this opportunity, the Committee presented a letter to Wilhelm II, namely to Germany, one of the most autocratic state of Europe and her Emperor, demanding support for their liberal aims. But the Germans, because of rapidly developing Germano-Ottoman relations at that time and concessions gained in the Ottoman territories, for not to harm the course, did not reply by any means.

Title: Lord Salisbury's Partition Proposal of the Ottoman Empire to Germany in 1895.

By spreading out the national movements during the 19th century, especially the Ottoman Christian minorities become an instrument for the western imperialist powers to intervene in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire. So, from 1878 onwards, the Ottoman Armenians have also become internationally, especially for Britain, a cause of interference to the Ottoman affairs. Britain was forcing the Ottomans since the Treaty of Berlin (1878) to make reforms on behalf of the Armenians. But because of Russia's opposition, and Germany's indifference, they yielded no result. After the Armenian incidents of 1894-1895, Britain, instead of developing reform programs, proposed Germans an alternative project: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. At that time, Holstein was the most influential person in the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Holstein believed that, if Germany accepts Lord Salisbury's proposal, she will inevitably enter a conflict against Russia, and the partition will affect the European peace negatively. Therefore, his approach to this proposal was not affirmative. As a matter of fact, Britain's relations with France and Russia were not good at that time. In addition to this, having not supported by the Germans as well, Lord Salisbury had to delay the partition plans for the Ottoman Empire.

Title: The Alliance Negotiations of the Ottoman Empire with the Great Powers Before the First World War and her Entrance to the War.

The First World War was a stroke of sword to the tangle of colonialism struggle, caused by 19th century imperialism. Just before the war, the basic fear of the Ottoman Empire was the Russians. Because, from the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottomans had waged a series of wars against the Russians, which resulted mostly in defeats, that caused the occurrence of the Moskof image in the minds, representing the enemy, who will bring the end of the empire. It seemed that the only way to stop the feared Russia was to obtain an alliance with her allies, Britain, and France. The other alliance alternative was Germany with her ally, Austria-Hungary. However, this was risky since, besides Russia, it would earn the enmity of Britain and France as well.

Militarism and military planning, which reached its peak by race for colonialism and the Weltpolitik of Wilhelm II, have set the European powers like dominoes. If one fell, all would fall. Under these circumstances, when the war was at the door, the Ottomans were seeking a remedy against Russia. It was thought that neutrality was not possible in terms of both materially and militarily. Therefore, there remained one way: Finding a strong ally. Negotiations with the Entente Powers not only produced distrust, but also simply pushed the Ottomans to the opposite side, to vitalize the post-war partitioning plans. Thereupon the Ottomans, with a disputable decision even for today, entered the war against the Entente Powers in the side of Central Powers.

Title: The Germano-British Struggle in "the Middle East" Before the First World War.

In the past, “the Middle East” has always been the scene of struggles according to the times’ parameters, due to its rich water sources, fertile soils, strategic position, and again rich underground resources. Before the First World War, the important actors of this struggle in this region were Britain and Germany. Since this territory was under the Ottoman rule, the struggles’ course was usually determined by the Ottoman Empire. However, fought in the same coalition, when the Ottoman Empire and Germany were defeated in the war, the British dominated the Middle East. Today, although the actors and parameters have changed, the region is still a place for serious conflicts.

Title: Arab Nationalism: From Its Emergence until 1918.

In the Ottoman Empire, by the introduction of modern schools with Tanzimat and by the influence of the missionary schools opened in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, Western nationalist ideas became prevalent, especially among the Christian Arabs. As for the Muslim Arabs, as a reaction to the irresistible regression against the West, they tried to find a solution to this regression by reviving Arabism through emphasizing on the Arab identity and culture, and its contributions to the Islamic and Western civilizations.

The Christian Arabs, besides working on the revival of the Arab language and culture, they also discussed the idea of separation and defended the idea of independence from the Ottoman Empire. But the Muslim Arabs, instead of separation, defended the unity of the Empire, but demanded their language widely used and culture to be more considered especially in their local areas. However, compared to Syrians, the Egyptian Arabs, under the influence of the British rule, developed a different understanding of nationalism by emphasizing on the idea of “motherland” and gave importance for being an “Egyptian” more than being an Arab.

Despite the nationalist movements among Muslim and Christian Arabs, the revolt started by Sheriff Hussein in Hedjaz during the First World War gained a restricted support among the Arabs. Because of the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement and Balfour Declaration, the Arabs were not able to get their independence after the First World War. Moreover, they were obliged to live under the English and French mandates by the supervision of the United Nations. So, for their independence, they had to wait until 1940’s, when the colonialist powers began to emancipate their colonies.

Title:  The German Struggle with Britain in Gaining Influence in the Ottoman Empire, 1890-1914.

With the unexpected defeat of the Ottomans in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877-78, the Russians became a threat for both the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. Thereupon, England, who defended her interests in the east by maintaining the Ottoman integrity, gave up her traditional policy and relied on his own naval power for preserving her interests in this region. Moreover, she also settled in Cyprus to establish a naval base and occupied Egypt.

By the participation of England in the share out of the Ottoman territories, the Ottomans sought for a new European ally and decided on Germany, who did not have any territorial designs on the Ottoman Empire.

Besides Weltpolitik, the increased German commercial and political influence in the Ottoman Empire raised mainly the English reaction. The concession of the Bagdad Railway, which will threaten the English route towards India, augmented the tension between Germany and England. Just before the First World War, England and Germany came to an agreement on the construction of the Bagdad Railway by recognizing each other’s interests in the region. But the conflict between the two blocks, which was formed because of conflicting and shared interests, resulted in a great war in 1914, which ended up with the dissolution of both the German and the Ottoman Empire.