- Archaeology of death and burial, Palaeopathology, Commercial/ Contract Archaeology, Burial Practices (Archaeology), Bronze Age Archaeology, Wildlife Conservation, and 21 moreEcotourism, Willingness to Pay, Sea Turtles, Australia, Endangered Species, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Mobility (Archaeology), Contingent valuation, Tourism, Birds, Conservation, Environmental Valuation (Economics), Giant Clams, Giant Clam Mariculture, Tridacna Giant Clams, Yunnan, Pacific Island Studies, Environmental Sustainability, Environmental Economics, Pest Management, and Livestock Managementedit
- Clem began his academic career at the Australian National University in 1964 as a Temporary lecturer and rapidly prog... moreClem began his academic career at the Australian National University in 1964 as a Temporary lecturer and rapidly progressed to Reader in Economics. In 1972, he joined Newcastle University as Professor of Economics and in 1989 switched to UQ as a Professor of Economics. He became a Professor Emeritus at UQ in 2005 where he is also a Professorial Research Associate of the School of Economics’ Risk and Sustainable Management Group. Clem is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia and an Honorary Professor of the People’s University of China. Clem’s main research interests are environmental and resource economics, agricultural economics, economic development, industry economics, tourism economics and microeconomic theory. His work has had a huge research impact – he has published over 70 books and over 600 articles in academic journals. His recent RePEc rank: 70/43,277. He is an editorial board member of several leading international journals, including Ecological Economics and International Journal of Social Economics. Clem has received many prestigious research grants and has acted as a consultant to several international and overseas bodies, including those of the UN. For almost 20 years, he headed Departments of Economics in Australia.edit
After providing a general overview of factors that make businesses economically vulnerable to pandemics (such as COVID-19), this article identifies specific elements that increase the vulnerability of businesses to pandemics. These... more
After providing a general overview of factors that make businesses economically vulnerable to pandemics (such as COVID-19), this article identifies specific elements that increase the vulnerability of businesses to pandemics. These specifics include the extent to which the demand for their production declines, how easy it is for them to reduce the costs of their production (cost escapability), the importance of disruptions or breaks in the supply chains of inputs utilized by businesses, and their ability to sustain their liquidity. Businesses that rely on personal contacts for sales are especially threatened, for example, those in the hospitality and tourism sector. However, others are also vulnerable for the reasons given. Nevertheless, some businesses do gain as a result of pandemics and similar events. Their economic gain adds to GDP. However, it could be more appropriate to regard their gains as a part of the cost of a pandemic rather than a benefit of it. The effect on the vulnerability of businesses if government policies designed to control pandemics is also considered. The main original contribution of this article is to show how the microeconomic theory of the firm can be adapted to conceptualize the vulnerability of individual businesses to pandemics, particularly COVID-19, while also noting the limitations of this approach.
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Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, poverty alleviation in ethnic minority regions and groups has been an important focus of China’s developmental policies. This paper reviews the progress in alleviating the poverty of... more
Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, poverty alleviation in ethnic minority regions and groups has been an important focus of China’s developmental policies. This paper reviews the progress in alleviating the poverty of China’s ethnic minority populations, and analyzes China’s poverty reduction policies, and challenges for the future. To end the extreme poverty of ethnic minorities, the Chinese government has designed many specific poverty alleviation policies, such as the Program to Revitalize Border Areas and Enrich Residents' Lives, the Program to Support Ethnic Minority Groups with A Small Population, preferential policies for “Three Areas and Three Prefectures”, and so on. The poverty reduction achievements of minorities have been significant in relation to education, health and living standards. However, there is still a long way to go. The Chinese government needs to address the following problems for the further development of ethnic minorities: the problem of poverty returning, phasing out current poverty reduction policies and redesigning them in terms of their costs and benefits, and the low level of public services offered to the poor, and income inequality between ethnics. It is argued that China’s ethnic minority groups may have gained little from the trickle-down effect (from the market system) of China’s economic growth and, therefore, direct government assistance to them has been needed to reduce their incidence of poverty. It is also recommended that the macro-type findings in this paper be supplemented by case studies of different ethnic minority groups. A case study of the Kirghiz minority group highlights the value of this.
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This article identifies why some poor rural women do or do not obtain micro-loans and considers the economic effectiveness of these loans. It draws on primary data collected through interviews and women focus group discussions from four... more
This article identifies why some poor rural women do or do not obtain micro-loans and considers the economic effectiveness of these loans. It draws on primary data collected through interviews and women focus group discussions from four villages of Sindh province in Pakistan. A qualitative approach is adopted to analyze the factors affecting women's access to micro-loans and their successful use of these loans. It shows that women's engagement in social networking helps them obtain micro-loans and assists them in using these loans wisely. Furthermore, success in using micro-loans encourages further business entrepreneurship and continuing evolution in social networks. Poor women need to be made aware of the important 10 role that social networking plays in accessing microfinance. Nevertheless, some rural women (and households) are unable to rely on micro-loans to alleviate their poverty. This article highlights demand-side credit issues faced by poor women and the implications of credit supply for their ability to engage in entrepreneurial activity and wealth creation. It emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to the assessment of microfinance taking into account its economic, social and psychological impacts within families, paying particular attention to gender relationships.
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Patterns are explored of the evolutionary stages in the management of economic exchange as economic activity grows and becomes more diverse and complex. These patterns are related to the economic development and external trade of... more
Patterns are explored of the evolutionary stages in the management of economic exchange as economic activity grows and becomes more diverse and complex. These patterns are related to the economic development and external trade of Phoenician city-states. In addition, attention is given to how well economic theories explain the evolution of Phoenician external trading, with particular attention being given to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of international trade. Also explored is the role of ‘new’ (evolving) media of exchange in facilitating interactive trade, especially that of Phoenicia. The possible methods that Phoenician rulers (and some other ancient rulers) adopted to extract a portion of the economic surplus from trade are outlined, and the policy issues they faced are discussed. It is concluded that media of exchange such as gold, silver and other treasures which initially fostered the growth of international trade, subsequently resulted in stifling this growth. This is because these items came to be regarded as a measure of real material wealth and led to policies being adopted by states which were intended to increase each state’s stock of these treasures. The seeds of mercantilism were sown. This system had several negative economic consequences and it actually tended to reduce international trade and decrease the economic prosperity of nations.
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The "Metallist" origin of money, used as a medium of exchange, is based on the presumed low efficiency of barter. However, barter is usually ill-defined and archaeological evidence about it is inconclusive. Moreover, the transaction costs... more
The "Metallist" origin of money, used as a medium of exchange, is based on the presumed low efficiency of barter. However, barter is usually ill-defined and archaeological evidence about it is inconclusive. Moreover, the transaction costs associated with barter seem to have been exaggerated by metallists. Indeed, the introduction of a unit of account reduces the complexity of the relative prices system usually associated with barter. Similarly, in-kind transactions have timing constraints which are often labeled as "the double coincidence of wants"; with a system of debt and credit, delayed exchange, that is lending, is possible. Such adaptability of barter is confirmed by the study of Mesopotamian and ancient Egyptian palatial economies. They provide evidence that non-monetary transactions have persisted during millennia, challenging the metallist vision about the origin of money.
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Anyone who has always wanted to deal with an economic assessment of the value of the koala should take a closer look at the book "Economics and Environmental Change-The Challenges We Face". With numerous practical examples, mainly from... more
Anyone who has always wanted to deal with an economic assessment of the value of the koala should take a closer look at the book "Economics and Environmental Change-The Challenges We Face". With numerous practical examples, mainly from his home country, the Australian economist Clement A. Tisdell provides a basic overview of various topics in environmental economics. He links these in part with institutional aspects of the human economy and, in addition, sheds light on individual issues that he regards as particularly relevant, such as the protection of biodiversity and the effects of climate change. Through a historical review, Tisdell succeeds in portraying the significance of the theme described in the book about the ever-threatening influence of humanity on the environment. By dealing with the term "Sustainable (Economic) Development", he also manages to work out the manifold views on the necessary intervention. The methods for evaluating ecosystem services are sometimes described in more detail (for example, Travel Cost Method) and sometimes less (as in the case of the Hedonic Pricing Model). Nevertheless, it becomes clear how difficult it is to evaluate interventions in nature. Due to the limited scope of the book, definitions, methods and economic approaches are not always fully explained. An economic knowledge is therefore quite helpful. A positive feature is the linking of the aspects of environmental economics with the implications of institutional economics. Here, it is excellently pointed out that currently dominating social structures as well as economic structures have a decisive negative influence on the interaction of humans with their environment. Among other things, this book criticizes globalization and free market economy because they result in the individual experiencing a sense of powerlessness over the system and lack of opportunities for change. Unfortunately, the author limits himself largely to the description of the limitations of the status quo in the Western world and provides only limited approaches to changing or eliminating the causes of market failure. The theoretical foundations presented in the first chapters are subsequently directly applied again in the separately considered topics, such as the protection of biodiversity and the effects of climate change. This is helpful in demonstrating, by means of tangible examples, the difficulties in assessing ecosystem services and the implications of social structures. However, due to the intrinsic complexity of the topic and the relatively small size of the book, insight into these topics can only be made in a flash. In summary, it is recommended the book for readers who have a basic knowledge of (environmental) economics and want to get a quick overview of further approaches and issues. While the reading can cover many topics only superficially due to the limited scope, it still provides valuable food for thought for further deepening. And last but not least, you learn more about the economic value of the koala
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Earlier this year, I was interviewed by Vitória Hirata of Mackenzie University, Sao Paolo, Brazil, in preparation for an article entitled “Chinese presence grows in Australia, raising suspicions of undue political influence’ for Olhares... more
Earlier this year, I was interviewed by Vitória Hirata of Mackenzie University, Sao Paolo, Brazil, in preparation for an article entitled “Chinese presence grows in Australia, raising suspicions of undue political influence’ for Olhares do Mundo. This magazine is produced by the School of Journalism of Mackenzie University. The journal is published in Portuguese and can be found at: https://olharesdomundo.wordpress.com/
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Global warming and other adverse climate change impacts induced by anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions is a major public policy concern around the world. This paper examines the impacts of market-based economic reforms on per capita... more
Global warming and other adverse climate change impacts induced by anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions is a major public policy concern around the world. This paper examines the impacts of market-based economic reforms on per capita CO2 emissions in the European and Central Asian transition economies where environmental degradation was pervasive prior reforms. A dynamic panel data model is employed for this purpose for 28 countries covering 22 years from 1990-2012. Our results suggest that reforms in competition policy and corporate governance are the significant driver of emissions reductions in the region. Therefore, advances in competition policy and governance reforms are desirable given the available scope to extend these reforms. The Kyoto Protocol had no significant effect in reducing emissions levels while the relationship between economic growth and emissions seems weak based on our results. The results indicate that reducing energy use by increasing energy efficiency and investments in renewable energy are necessary to reduce the carbon emissions level and mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change in the region.
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Provides a sketch of the development of the concept of bounded rationality in economic thought. The concept of rationality has several meanings. These different meanings are taken into account in considering the further development of... more
Provides a sketch of the development of the concept of bounded rationality in economic thought. The concept of rationality has several meanings. These different meanings are taken into account in considering the further development of economic thought. Different views of ecological rationality are critically examined in the light of these concepts. Whether or not various theories of behavioral economics can be classified as exhibiting bounded rationality is discussed. Satisficing behavior is commonly associated with bounded rationality but as demonstrated, it is not the only reason for adopting such behavior. The idea of some authors that optimization models under constraints are of little or no relevance to bounded rationality is rejected. Bounded rationality is an important contributor to the diversity of (economic) behaviors. This is stressed. Whether or not a behavior is rational depends to a considerable extent on the situation (the constraints) that decision-makers or actors face. The time-constraint is very important as an influence on the rationality of decisions. Aspects of this are covered.
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Considers and examines the contrasting attitudes of developing and higher income countries, as well as the WTO, to the proposition that the failure of a country to meet core labour or social standards should constitute allowable grounds... more
Considers and examines the contrasting attitudes of developing and higher income countries, as well as the WTO, to the proposition that the failure of a country to meet core labour or social standards should constitute allowable grounds for international trade discrimination against it. Similarly, the parallel proposition for failure of a country to satisfy globally
'acceptable' environmental standards is examined. It is emphasized that social standards are much wider than social norms. Furthermore, international fiscal competition, easily fostered by globalisation, can result in a lowering of social standards in all countries and a global economic welfare loss.
Reductions of environmental standards by competing nations can have a similar adverse consequences. Although, as demonstrated analytically, a case exists for lower standards in developing countries than in higher income countries, this does not mean that developing countries should have no standards. It is argued that the development of global governance has failed to keep pace with growing international economic and environmental interdependence. This should be a matter for widespread concern.
'acceptable' environmental standards is examined. It is emphasized that social standards are much wider than social norms. Furthermore, international fiscal competition, easily fostered by globalisation, can result in a lowering of social standards in all countries and a global economic welfare loss.
Reductions of environmental standards by competing nations can have a similar adverse consequences. Although, as demonstrated analytically, a case exists for lower standards in developing countries than in higher income countries, this does not mean that developing countries should have no standards. It is argued that the development of global governance has failed to keep pace with growing international economic and environmental interdependence. This should be a matter for widespread concern.
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By way of further background, the potential of tourism to act as a growth pole in inland China is discussed generally, followed by consideration of its specific potential in relation to Yunnan Province. Input-output analysis provides a... more
By way of further background, the potential of tourism to act as a growth pole in inland China is discussed generally, followed by consideration of its specific potential in relation to Yunnan Province. Input-output analysis provides a means to quantify inter-industry impacts, even though it is not without limitations as a technique. In order to introduce the tourism supplemented input-output table for Yunnan, China's input-output tables are first outlined, followed by presentation of the standard input-output tables for Yunnan, which are then modified to identify the tourism industry. This enables income, output and employment multipliers associated with an expansion of the tourism industry in Yunnan to be estimated, and the growth-enhancing (growth-pole) potential of the tourism industry in Yunnan to be assessed. In the penultimate section, policy measures to promote tourism as a growth pole in Yunnan are outlined. This type of analysis can also be applied to other regions.
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Although tourism, especially ecotourism, has been targeted as the leading industry in many peripheral areas, including Yunnan in China, in order to promote local economic growth, theories of unbalanced growth and the potential of tourism... more
Although tourism, especially ecotourism, has been targeted as the leading industry in many peripheral areas, including Yunnan in China, in order to promote local economic growth, theories of unbalanced growth and the potential of tourism development as a growth pole need to be better understood. The growth pole concept has proven attractive as a policy tool for developing economically lagging areas since the 1960s, despite its conceptual and practical limitations.
While some areas of China, such as Yunnan, have adopted growth pole approaches as a basic economic strategy in the hope of promoting their regional economy and reducing spatial economic disparity, there have been misunderstandings about growth pole theories and inappropriate applications of this strategy in China. It is necessary to understand what the growth pole paradigm is really about, and how it should be applied in different economies. After presenting major theories on unbalanced regional development, this chapter provides a detailed discussion of growth pole theory. Its application in both developed countries and LDCs is then compared, and so are failures in implementing growth pole strategy. The potential for tertiary industry, especially tourism, to become a growth pole for some regions is then considered. With continuing growth of tertiary industry in both developed and developing economies, it seems reasonable to expect service industries to play a leading role in the growth and continued viability of these economies.
While some areas of China, such as Yunnan, have adopted growth pole approaches as a basic economic strategy in the hope of promoting their regional economy and reducing spatial economic disparity, there have been misunderstandings about growth pole theories and inappropriate applications of this strategy in China. It is necessary to understand what the growth pole paradigm is really about, and how it should be applied in different economies. After presenting major theories on unbalanced regional development, this chapter provides a detailed discussion of growth pole theory. Its application in both developed countries and LDCs is then compared, and so are failures in implementing growth pole strategy. The potential for tertiary industry, especially tourism, to become a growth pole for some regions is then considered. With continuing growth of tertiary industry in both developed and developing economies, it seems reasonable to expect service industries to play a leading role in the growth and continued viability of these economies.
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This chapter provides a case study of the development of tourism in an inland province of China, namely Yunnan. Tourism is regarded as a leading or key economic sector in Yunnan. This chapter provides an opportunity to consider the nature... more
This chapter provides a case study of the development of tourism in an inland province of China, namely Yunnan. Tourism is regarded as a leading or key economic sector in Yunnan. This chapter provides an opportunity to consider the nature of this development, including its spatial characteristics within Yunnan. Situated in Southwest China (see Fig. 3.1), Yunnan is rich in ecotourism resources and tourist attractions associated with minority cultures. Rapid growth in tourism has occurred in Yunnan Province since 1979 with several destinations being popular. Xishuangbanna Prefecture, one of the important tourism centres of Yunnan, provides an interesting case study of ecotourism and its management in the context of China, and raises difficulties about how ecotourism resources should be evaluated. It therefore helps illustrate issues raised in Chapters 6 and 7, and highlights difficulties in applying concepts introduced in these chapters.
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This chapter mostly involves a discussion of the evaluation of resources for use in ecotourism, an important issue given the development needs of China. Land used for ecotourism competes with alternative possible uses. Therefore, it is... more
This chapter mostly involves a discussion of the evaluation of resources for use in ecotourism, an important issue given the development needs of China. Land used for ecotourism competes with alternative possible uses. Therefore, it is important that alternative land-use be appropriately evaluated from an economic point of view. In particular, indirect or non-market values ought to be taken into account in the total economic evaluation of alternative land uses as well as the sustainability of alternative land-uses. Systems of evaluation (and rewards) based only on direct economic benefits appropriated by land holders involve restricted evaluation and can result in the economic misallocation of resources. Such an approach disadvantages activities with high indirect values such as ecotourism.
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In the previous chapter, it was suggested that ecotourism, broadly defined, has been an important factor in the expansion of the level of tourism in inland China. This is especially so if ecotourism is defined to include tourism which... more
In the previous chapter, it was suggested that ecotourism, broadly defined, has been an important factor in the expansion of the level of tourism in inland China. This is especially so if ecotourism is defined to include tourism which relies both on natural and cultural manifestations in natural areas as does the definition of Hector Ceballos-Lascurian introduced later in this chapter. China's inland areas have a greater presence and variety of cultures of minority groups than does its coastal region, as well as diverse natural attractions, as for example outlined in depth for the inland province of Yunnan in Chapter 8.
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International tourism in China has grown rapidly since 1979 (Wen and Tisdell, 1996; Chapter 2). From 1980 to 1998, China's inbound tourist arrivals and tourism receipts grew at an average annual rate of 17 and 15 percent respectively.... more
International tourism in China has grown rapidly since 1979 (Wen and Tisdell, 1996; Chapter 2). From 1980 to 1998, China's inbound tourist arrivals and tourism receipts grew at an average annual rate of 17 and 15 percent respectively. Total international arrivals reached 63.5 million in 1998, and China's international tourism receipts were US$12.6 billion. This amounted to 6.9 percent of China's total foreign exchange revenue in 1998 (NTA, 1999).
While it has been well recognised that Chinese economy is heavily concentrated on the coastal region (Tisdell, 1996), greater spatial inequality of tourism (based both on demand- and supply-side indicators) is present than occurs for the socio-economic variables. Thus, inbound tourism appears to reinforce the regional socio-economic inequalities in China (Wen and Tisdell, 1996). International tourism seems to be contributing to greater economic disparity between coastal and inland China as is evident from the previous chapter.
Given the extent to which growth has occurred in the Chinese economy and in inbound tourism to China, those regional disparities may well have altered. Consequently, the purpose of this chapter is to investigate the change in the spatial distribution of international tourism in China from 1986 to 1998, and to analyse factors that have contributed to this change.
While it has been well recognised that Chinese economy is heavily concentrated on the coastal region (Tisdell, 1996), greater spatial inequality of tourism (based both on demand- and supply-side indicators) is present than occurs for the socio-economic variables. Thus, inbound tourism appears to reinforce the regional socio-economic inequalities in China (Wen and Tisdell, 1996). International tourism seems to be contributing to greater economic disparity between coastal and inland China as is evident from the previous chapter.
Given the extent to which growth has occurred in the Chinese economy and in inbound tourism to China, those regional disparities may well have altered. Consequently, the purpose of this chapter is to investigate the change in the spatial distribution of international tourism in China from 1986 to 1998, and to analyse factors that have contributed to this change.
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The main purpose of this chapter is to determine whether and to what extent tourism is concentrated on China's coastal region (core or economic centre) compared to its inland (its economic periphery). The spatial distribution of China's... more
The main purpose of this chapter is to determine whether and to what extent tourism is concentrated on China's coastal region (core or economic centre) compared to its inland (its economic periphery). The spatial distribution of China's tourism industry is analysed in order to understand whether the development of tourism in China in recent times has seemingly added to or ameliorated the regional inequality across China, and particularly between its coastal and inland region. The spatial distribution pattern of tourism in China is analysed by using indicators from both the tourism demand- and supply-side. Gini coefficients, Lorenz curves, regression analysis, and other statistical analyses are used. The spatial inequality of tourism in China is measured and socio-economic reasons for this inequality are considered. The analysis in this chapter is focussed on the spatial distribution of inbound tourism in 1986. As will be apparent from Chapter 5, which includes data for 1998 and other years, the basic spatial pattern has not altered although some trends in the skew are apparent.
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In the previous chapter, it was mentioned that considerable inequality exists in China in both regional development of its tourism and in its economic development. This chapter provides a broad overview of theories of regional development... more
In the previous chapter, it was mentioned that considerable inequality exists in China in both regional development of its tourism and in its economic development. This chapter provides a broad overview of theories of regional development and regional economic inequality, and relates these in general terms to regional income inequality in China. In doing so, it discusses the historical and current pattern of such inequality, especially between China's coastal and interior areas, and examines government policies which have shaped this pattern. The question is then debated of whether regional economic inequality really matters from an economic policy point of view, and whether or not government intervention should be considered as a means to modify the spatial distribution of economic development, particularly in China, by encouraging key or leading industries, such as tourism, in the interior of China. This chapter is a prelude to considering impacts of tourism development on regional economic disparities in China, in particular, whether tourism development adds to such inequalities or moderates these, a central concern in Chapters 4 and 5.
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The purpose of this chapter is to outline the tourism policy and administrative changes in China which have facilitated the growth of its tourism industry, and then to trace out the pattern of growth of inbound tourism to China and trends... more
The purpose of this chapter is to outline the tourism policy and administrative changes in China which have facilitated the growth of its tourism industry, and then to trace out the pattern of growth of inbound tourism to China and trends in the components of this tourism. A similar exercise is undertaken for domestic tourism and the composition of the total Chinese tourism market is analysed. Comparisons are made between the growth rates of segments of the total tourism market in China using trend analyses which also enable some projections to be made, albeit tentatively. Some environmental and other sustainability obstacles to China's continued tourism growth are identified. Such obstacles need to be given increasing attention by policy-makers if the development of China's tourism industry is to be sustained.
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After providing an overview of links between nature conservation and sustainable development, this book outlined possible roles for environmental and resource economics in planning for sustainable development. Conservation of biodiversity... more
After providing an overview of links between nature conservation and sustainable development, this book outlined possible roles for environmental and resource economics in planning for sustainable development. Conservation of biodiversity can be an important goal in itself and its maintenance can contribute greatly to the attainment of sustainable development. The significance of biodiversity as a factor making for sustainable development was discussed, taking into account a range of concepts of sustainable development. Biodiversity conservation was found to be of significance in relation to all the concepts of sustainable development considered.
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Chapters 10-14 have concentrated on management issues involving nature conservation in Xishuangbanna Prefecture in China, especially in relation to its State Nature Reserve. While the issues were discussed, analysed and illustrated for a... more
Chapters 10-14 have concentrated on management issues involving nature conservation in Xishuangbanna Prefecture in China, especially in relation to its State Nature Reserve. While the issues were discussed, analysed and illustrated for a particular locality, they are of wider relevance to China and to Asia. This is not to say that problems of conserving biodiversity, and of attaining sustainable development, are the same in all parts of Asia. Nevertheless, there is a considerable degree of similarity between these problems encountered throughout Asia and in many developed countries. For example, the situation in north-east India, as far as sustainable development and nature conservation is concerned, has similarities with Yunnan.
Although this chapter concentrates on sustainable development and conservation of biodiversity in north-east India, they are placed in a broad context which enlarges the discussion in Chapter 9. Furthermore, given the low-level provision of protected areas in most states of north-east India, it is necessary to give greater consideration to conservation outside such areas. Therefore, agricultural and forest sustainability in this part of lndia is given a significant amount of attention. To some extent, the Asian situation mirrors global developments, brought about by economic expansion and growth of human population.
Although this chapter concentrates on sustainable development and conservation of biodiversity in north-east India, they are placed in a broad context which enlarges the discussion in Chapter 9. Furthermore, given the low-level provision of protected areas in most states of north-east India, it is necessary to give greater consideration to conservation outside such areas. Therefore, agricultural and forest sustainability in this part of lndia is given a significant amount of attention. To some extent, the Asian situation mirrors global developments, brought about by economic expansion and growth of human population.
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Available funds for protecting and managing nature reserves are extremely limited in developing countries, including China. This chapter considers the financing and management of Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve in Yunnan, as a case... more
Available funds for protecting and managing nature reserves are extremely limited in developing countries, including China. This chapter considers the financing and management of Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve in Yunnan, as a case study. This reserve is under the overall management of the Bureau for the Protection of Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve but there is considerable decentralization in the management of its five sub-reserves. These are managed from four stations, one for each of the sub-reserves except for Mengla and Shangyong Sub-reserves which share the same station. The source of funds for the reserve and sub-reserves are listed and the nature of outlays are specified. Almost all available funds are spent on salaries, wages and pensions for staff of the reserve, leaving few funds for overheads, transport and other items, especially capital items. Government is the principal source of funding, but some income is obtained from ecotourism, from a butterfly farm and factory for processing butterflies, from multiple-use operations, such as rental income from concessions to growing passionfruit in parts of the reserve, and from resource management fees, such as fines imposed for illegal use of the reserve, and payments for the controlled removal of timber and wood from the reserve.
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Protected areas are often the source of what the farming community regard as agricultural pests, and Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve in Yunnan is no exception. This chapter discusses problems, including economic problems, associated... more
Protected areas are often the source of what the farming community regard as agricultural pests, and Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve in Yunnan is no exception. This chapter discusses problems, including economic problems, associated with agricultural pests and their incidental protection by nature reserves, taking Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve as an example. The main pest associated with the reserve is the Asian elephant Elephas maximus, which causes damage to agriculture outside as well as within the reserve. However, these elephants are also an important attraction for tourists visiting Xishuangbanna which contains the only remaining wild elephants in China. The present economic value of tourism within the reserve is much less than the economic damage caused by elephants and other species protected by it. So whether the net economic value of protecting this species in Xishuangbanna is positive depends on other factors discussed, and future tourism prospects. Methods of controlling 'pests' from the reserve are examined, as is the scheme for compensating agriculturalists for damages caused. In this chapter, the task of achieving an equitable solution to the pest problem is given considerable attention, and the economics of reconciling the conflicting interests of those who regard a species as either a pest or as an asset, is considered.
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Tourism in Mengla County, the last county in Xishuangbanna Prefecture to be opened to tourism, is examined as a particular case, and special attention is paid to the role that Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve is playing in the... more
Tourism in Mengla County, the last county in Xishuangbanna Prefecture to be opened to tourism, is examined as a particular case, and special attention is paid to the role that Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve is playing in the development of ecotourism, including the involvement of local communities. A master plan has been drawn up for tourism development in Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve and this is outlined and examined. Ecotourism development in this prefecture requires a sound financial basis, as well as to support the conservation of its rich biodiversity. Involvement of local communities, such as is occurring near Mengla, can assist in this regard. Let us consider the above mentioned aspects.
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The State Council has adopted Agenda 21 for China, and biodiversity conservation is one plank of this agenda for China's sustainable development. This chapter provides a brief discussion of China's White Paper on Agenda 21 and examines,... more
The State Council has adopted Agenda 21 for China, and biodiversity conservation is one plank of this agenda for China's sustainable development. This chapter provides a brief discussion of China's White Paper on Agenda 21 and examines, as a case study, the problem of sustaining biological diversity in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan. This area is rated as one of 'megadiversity' and deserving of high priority for conservation purposes. After discussing the general socio-economic obstacles to biodiversity conservation in Xishuangbanna, the paper examines types of strategies for reducing pressures on biodiversity and nature conservation, adopted by local communities. The preferred strategy in China for easing such pressures is to try to improve economic opportunities outside the reserves and thereby raise the income levels of people living in the neighbourhood. This approach has been adopted in Xishuangbanna and there are plans to extend it. Community development projects such as agroforestry, joint ventures in tourism and so on, are being encouraged. Mechanisms for selecting suitable community development projects, for example, using Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), are also considered. Without economic development at the local level, plans for biodiversity conservation are unlikely to succeed in China, or for that matter elsewhere in the developing world.
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Considerable loss of biodiversity has been occurring in China, as in most developing countries, and threats are increasing because of China's rapid rate of economic growth. China is therefore developing and considering plans and policies,... more
Considerable loss of biodiversity has been occurring in China, as in most developing countries, and threats are increasing because of China's rapid rate of economic growth. China is therefore developing and considering plans and policies, with assistance from international organisations such as the World Bank, to improve its wildlife programmes systematically. However, being still a low-income country, China must carefully weigh up the economic benefits and costs of its biodiversity conservation programme and design it to generate as much economic benefit as possible, without compromising its conservation objectives. Such considerations are especially important at the local level, to gain support for conservation measures and maintain or increase local standards of living. This is illustrated by Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve in southwest China. Policy-makers recognise the importance of integrating conservation within this reserve with harmonious economic development in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, and reject the isolated 'island' concept of conservation planning. Such an approach calls for regional integration of economic development and conservation and will make for greater sustainability of conservation programmes. Prospects for sustaining biodiversity in China will be heavily influenced by socio-political factors which, in tum, can be expected to reflect economic considerations.
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While economic growth in the Asian region is a potential means for low income countries to improve their lot, it raises concerns about the natural environment. Political bias exists in favour of Asian economic growth both in Asia and... more
While economic growth in the Asian region is a potential means for low income countries to improve their lot, it raises concerns about the natural environment. Political bias exists in favour of Asian economic growth both in Asia and abroad, even at considerable expense to the environment. The theoretical underpinnings of the bias are discussed in this chapter, which helps to place the individual case studies in their broader setting. The main emphasis is on East Asia, particularly China. A number of the environmental issues in Asia are considered involving water, air and soils, and particularly, the global greenhouse problem arising from China's use of fossil fuels. Conservation of living resources and biodiversity is difficult, given East Asia's rapid economic growth, and is made more difficult by the fact that many areas designated for nature protection are inhabited by villagers, or are subject to encroachment by migrating groups. Furthermore, in low income countries, nature protection is often considered to be a luxury and/or there is a perception that more distant frontiers are more suitable for nature conservation. It is difficult to provide those inhabiting protected areas with alternative means of livelihood to their utilisation of the natural area. Tourism development is a possibility but it has limitations. In fact, tourism development in Asia is a source of several environmental problems. Increased urbanisation is another environmental feature of Asia and may have positive long-term environmental impact by reducing the rate of population growth. With economic growth, interregional and transboundary conflicts will intensify in Asia. It seems possible that both market mechanisms and political ones will be inadequate to deal with Asia's growing environmental problems. This chapter is critical of the view that economic growth to the neglect of the environment is acceptable, even in low income countries, and suggests that given the public good/bad dimensions of Asia's development, that more assistance from high income countries in relation to environmental conservation in Asia's less developed countries, is justified.
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There are generally few opportunities to earn income from protected areas. Therefore, as pointed out in the previous chapter, constant problems arise in financing their establishment and management. Ecotourism provides one of the few... more
There are generally few opportunities to earn income from protected areas. Therefore, as pointed out in the previous chapter, constant problems arise in financing their establishment and management. Ecotourism provides one of the few opportunities to earn income from them and its potential is considered in this chapter.
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The previous chapter argues that non-market methods are needed to support the provision of protected areas, in order to preserve biodiversity. Funds must be supplied by governments or by private donations for this purpose. International... more
The previous chapter argues that non-market methods are needed to support the provision of protected areas, in order to preserve biodiversity. Funds must be supplied by governments or by private donations for this purpose. International agencies of a quasi-public nature, as well as associations of private individuals and groups have grown up for the purpose of gathering funds for conservation and distributing these internationally. Such agencies and applicants for these funds are faced with a number of economic issues which are discussed in this chapter.
International aid and funding agencies usually receive more requests to support conservation proposals than can be met by their available funds, and therefore have to rank their applications. A checklist of questions or factors, which may be taken into account by funding agencies in prioritising inter-country and inter-regional requests, is# given in this chapter. The mechanics of allocation of funds on the basis of net economic benefits are discussed and limitations of the cost-benefit approach are noted. A list of factors likely to favour the selection of particular projects is presented. Communicators should take those into account in framing proposals and approaching funding agencies. The possibility of non-economic and strategic factors influencing the distribution of funds for support of protected areas is discussed here.
International aid and funding agencies usually receive more requests to support conservation proposals than can be met by their available funds, and therefore have to rank their applications. A checklist of questions or factors, which may be taken into account by funding agencies in prioritising inter-country and inter-regional requests, is# given in this chapter. The mechanics of allocation of funds on the basis of net economic benefits are discussed and limitations of the cost-benefit approach are noted. A list of factors likely to favour the selection of particular projects is presented. Communicators should take those into account in framing proposals and approaching funding agencies. The possibility of non-economic and strategic factors influencing the distribution of funds for support of protected areas is discussed here.
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The previous chapter considered how extension of the commercial use of wildlife might effect the conservation of biodiversity. It was argued that such extension is not always effective in protecting wildlife and that even in cases where... more
The previous chapter considered how extension of the commercial use of wildlife might effect the conservation of biodiversity. It was argued that such extension is not always effective in protecting wildlife and that even in cases where it may be considered to be effective, it is usually selective in its conservation of species and variety. Therefore, it is likely to be inadequate in conserving biodiversity and the webs of life so dear to Aldo Leopold (1996). Private property rights and commercialisation of wildlife do not provide a complete answer to the conservation of biodiversity; protected areas need to be provided to ensure a more acceptable level of biodiversity conservation. A related economic matter poses the question: what effects do the extension of the market system and the process of economic globalisation have on the conservation of nature, including its biodiversity? This is taken up in this chapter.
Research Interests: Asian Studies, Economics, Indian studies, Sustainable Development, Local Economic Development, and 9 moreChina, Sustainable Tourism, Biodiversity, Protected areas, Sustainable Tourism Development, Natural Resource and Environmental Economics, Biodiversity Conservation, Nature Conservation, and Xishuangbanna
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the extent to which the greater economic use of wildlife favours nature conservation and sustainability. But before doing so, it may be useful to discuss the nature of the economic use of... more
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the extent to which the greater economic use of wildlife favours nature conservation and sustainability. But before doing so, it may be useful to discuss the nature of the economic use of wildlife. Economists distinguish between consumptive and non-consumptive use of wildlife; the former involves the physical consumption of wildlife, for example, kangaroos for meat and hides, whereas the latter involves non-physical use, as in the trailing of wildlife for viewing or photography. The former involves the killing of wildlife and the latter does not. However, both types of economic use of wildlife can reduce wildlife population. For· instance, tourists may disturb wildlife and reduce their rate of reproduction, or lead to their capture for display in zoos, thereby possibly depleting wild populations.
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As mentioned in the previous chapter, several authors stress the importance of biological diversity for the sustainability of ecosystems and individual species and, therefore, for the maintenance of the stream of services (economic and... more
As mentioned in the previous chapter, several authors stress the importance of biological diversity for the sustainability of ecosystems and individual species and, therefore, for the maintenance of the stream of services (economic and otherwise) which they provide, and for the continuing satisfaction of values which some individuals espouse. Given that biodiversity is an important natural asset, it is worthwhile exploring the extent to which species survival and ecosystem functioning is dependent on the presence of biodiversity. In the previous chapter, the naive GAIA principle was rejected, but nevertheless, it was suggested that biodiversity is an important part of natural capital and plays a pivotal role in sustaining economic production and human welfare. Yet we should not accept the idea completely without subjecting it to critical scrutiny. The purpose of this chapter is to engage in such scrutiny.
It involves a brief discussion of agricultural systems and biodiversity; the dependence of the resilience of ecological systems on biodiversity; introduction of the view that resilience is not a sufficient indicator of the sustainability of ecosystems and biological species or varieties and that other factors, such as robustness, must be taken into account; and a discussion of the role of disturbance and variations of ecological stress in the preservation of biodiversity.
It involves a brief discussion of agricultural systems and biodiversity; the dependence of the resilience of ecological systems on biodiversity; introduction of the view that resilience is not a sufficient indicator of the sustainability of ecosystems and biological species or varieties and that other factors, such as robustness, must be taken into account; and a discussion of the role of disturbance and variations of ecological stress in the preservation of biodiversity.
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Research Interests: Asian Studies, Economics, Environmental Economics, Tourism Studies, Indian studies, and 10 moreSustainable Development, Local Economic Development, China, Environmental Sustainability, Sustainable Tourism Development, Natural Resource and Environmental Economics, Biodiversity Conservation, Nature Conservation, Xishuangbanna, and Asian Economics
Environmental and resource economics can play a significant role in effective planning for sustainable development and in devising measures for fostering nature conservation and retaining biodiversity. The character of its possible... more
Environmental and resource economics can play a significant role in effective planning for sustainable development and in devising measures for fostering nature conservation and retaining biodiversity. The character of its possible contribution is indicated in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 considers the importance of biodiversity conservation for a sustainable development by linking it with several different concepts of sustainable development. It also points out that the diversity of biological resources is a part of the stock of natural capital, and therefore gains significance in those models of sustainable development which stress the importance of conserving the stock of natural resources.
The sustainability of ecosystems can be important from the point of view of sustainable economic development as well as for those who place weight upon nature conservation in its own right. While biodiversity conservation can be important for the sustainability of some ecosystems, its significance may well have been exaggerated. Certainly, some ecosystems containing great biological diversity appear not to be very sustainable, whereas others with little diversity seem to be very much so. Factors other than diversity are important for the sustainability of ecosystems and species, such as their adaptability, degree of biological tolerance and mobility. Furthermore, the concept of resilience of ecosystems is found to be inadequate as an indicator of the sustainability of ecosystems. It needs to be supplemented by other concepts, which are discussed, such as robustness.
Biodiversity conservation may require disturbance of habitats. There is some evidence that biodiversity tends to be high in disturbed habitats. In considering the subject, we really need to examine the dynamics of ecological systems. However, as pointed out in Chapter 4, it does not follow that humankind, by disturbing more and more natural habitats, will increase global biodiversity. Furthermore, the impact of human disturbance in a locality depends on the nature and severity of that disturbance.
A few biologists and some economists see the extension of private property rights, and greater economic use and sale of wildlife products and services as favourable to the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity. However, it is argued in Chapter 5 this is not necessarily so and that it may even distort the composition of the surviving biological stock. Furthermore, in Chapter 6 it is argued that the global economic system and the extension of markets are often unfavourable to the conservation of nature, as are the type of economic structural adjustment policies supported by the World Bank and the IMF O The matter is quite complex. Apart from considering the likely influence of the international economic system on biodiversity conservation, this chapter considers the impact of macroeconomic policy upon it and international externality and public good aspects of nature conservation,
On a world scale, obtaining finance and distributing it on behalf of nature conservation is an important activity for many donors. Chapter 7 explores factors which should be taken into account by donors in allocating the money, and the economics of raising such funds.
Sustainable development and conservation are always easier to achieve when they bring positive economic benefits to communities affected by these endeavours. Ecotourism is frequently seen as a promising method of reconciling nature conservation with economic benefits to local communities, and to countries possessing the living resources on which such ecotourism depends. In Chapter 8, features of ecotourism are discussed and factors favourable to its economic success or otherwise are outlined. Attention is also drawn to dangers and difficulties involved in developing ecotourism for nature conservation purpose so
Part III of this book draws on experiences and cases from Asia, to illustrate the difficulties and challenges which economic growth poses for the conservation of nature and biodiversity. It considers some of the ways in which these challenges are being met, particularly in China. Although economic growth and economic globalization raise problems for nature conservation, they may also provide new opportunities for it, for example through the expansion of tourism.
Many environmental changes and impacts on nature have occurred in Asia as a result of economic growth. These are considered generally in Chapter 9; this study then concentrates on case material from Xishuangbanna Prefecture in Southern Yunnan, an area of high biodiversity. Chapter 10 assesses the costs and benefits of nature conservation in the Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve. Chapter 11 concentrates on issues involved in Xishuangbanna in trying to reconcile possible conflicts between economic development, nature conservation and local communities. Chapter 12 concentrates on the role of tourism in Xishuangbanna in fostering the conservation of nature and local communities. Protected areas do not always yield a 'win-win' situation for everyone. Protected areas often harbour pests from the point of view of nearby agriculturalists, and Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve is no exception; elephants from this reserve sometimes do considerable damage to agricultural crops. This issue is discussed in Chapter 13. Most developing countries are short of finance for managing their protected areas and China has this problem too. Financial realities affect the management of protected areas and the strategies adopted by their managers, and this in tum impacts on the biological diversity actually protected. Features of this are discussed in Chapter 14 in relation to Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve, but the political economy and public finance issues involved are not peculiar to this reserve.
The penultimate chapter concentrates on North-east India. Like Yunnan, it is a region of rich biological diversity. However, this biodiversity is under considerable threat and a number of current economic activities in this region, such as slash-and-bum agriculture, are becoming unsustainable. There are many reasons for this; some have to do with institutional rigidities, such as failures to modify property rights in land (lack of co-evolution), as well as an increasing population, rising income aspirations, and the scarcity of local economic alternatives to natural resource utilisation. Serious biodiversity loss is in fact associated with the type of unsustainable economic change which is occurring in the area. Although this large region is peripheral to India, it is nevertheless one rich in biodiversity and it contains many different cultures. For these reasons it is worthy of global attention. The dynamics of its situation and the character of its human-natural environment interaction could also provide useful insights into other developing regions undergoing similar changes.
The sustainability of ecosystems can be important from the point of view of sustainable economic development as well as for those who place weight upon nature conservation in its own right. While biodiversity conservation can be important for the sustainability of some ecosystems, its significance may well have been exaggerated. Certainly, some ecosystems containing great biological diversity appear not to be very sustainable, whereas others with little diversity seem to be very much so. Factors other than diversity are important for the sustainability of ecosystems and species, such as their adaptability, degree of biological tolerance and mobility. Furthermore, the concept of resilience of ecosystems is found to be inadequate as an indicator of the sustainability of ecosystems. It needs to be supplemented by other concepts, which are discussed, such as robustness.
Biodiversity conservation may require disturbance of habitats. There is some evidence that biodiversity tends to be high in disturbed habitats. In considering the subject, we really need to examine the dynamics of ecological systems. However, as pointed out in Chapter 4, it does not follow that humankind, by disturbing more and more natural habitats, will increase global biodiversity. Furthermore, the impact of human disturbance in a locality depends on the nature and severity of that disturbance.
A few biologists and some economists see the extension of private property rights, and greater economic use and sale of wildlife products and services as favourable to the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity. However, it is argued in Chapter 5 this is not necessarily so and that it may even distort the composition of the surviving biological stock. Furthermore, in Chapter 6 it is argued that the global economic system and the extension of markets are often unfavourable to the conservation of nature, as are the type of economic structural adjustment policies supported by the World Bank and the IMF O The matter is quite complex. Apart from considering the likely influence of the international economic system on biodiversity conservation, this chapter considers the impact of macroeconomic policy upon it and international externality and public good aspects of nature conservation,
On a world scale, obtaining finance and distributing it on behalf of nature conservation is an important activity for many donors. Chapter 7 explores factors which should be taken into account by donors in allocating the money, and the economics of raising such funds.
Sustainable development and conservation are always easier to achieve when they bring positive economic benefits to communities affected by these endeavours. Ecotourism is frequently seen as a promising method of reconciling nature conservation with economic benefits to local communities, and to countries possessing the living resources on which such ecotourism depends. In Chapter 8, features of ecotourism are discussed and factors favourable to its economic success or otherwise are outlined. Attention is also drawn to dangers and difficulties involved in developing ecotourism for nature conservation purpose so
Part III of this book draws on experiences and cases from Asia, to illustrate the difficulties and challenges which economic growth poses for the conservation of nature and biodiversity. It considers some of the ways in which these challenges are being met, particularly in China. Although economic growth and economic globalization raise problems for nature conservation, they may also provide new opportunities for it, for example through the expansion of tourism.
Many environmental changes and impacts on nature have occurred in Asia as a result of economic growth. These are considered generally in Chapter 9; this study then concentrates on case material from Xishuangbanna Prefecture in Southern Yunnan, an area of high biodiversity. Chapter 10 assesses the costs and benefits of nature conservation in the Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve. Chapter 11 concentrates on issues involved in Xishuangbanna in trying to reconcile possible conflicts between economic development, nature conservation and local communities. Chapter 12 concentrates on the role of tourism in Xishuangbanna in fostering the conservation of nature and local communities. Protected areas do not always yield a 'win-win' situation for everyone. Protected areas often harbour pests from the point of view of nearby agriculturalists, and Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve is no exception; elephants from this reserve sometimes do considerable damage to agricultural crops. This issue is discussed in Chapter 13. Most developing countries are short of finance for managing their protected areas and China has this problem too. Financial realities affect the management of protected areas and the strategies adopted by their managers, and this in tum impacts on the biological diversity actually protected. Features of this are discussed in Chapter 14 in relation to Xishuangbanna State Nature Reserve, but the political economy and public finance issues involved are not peculiar to this reserve.
The penultimate chapter concentrates on North-east India. Like Yunnan, it is a region of rich biological diversity. However, this biodiversity is under considerable threat and a number of current economic activities in this region, such as slash-and-bum agriculture, are becoming unsustainable. There are many reasons for this; some have to do with institutional rigidities, such as failures to modify property rights in land (lack of co-evolution), as well as an increasing population, rising income aspirations, and the scarcity of local economic alternatives to natural resource utilisation. Serious biodiversity loss is in fact associated with the type of unsustainable economic change which is occurring in the area. Although this large region is peripheral to India, it is nevertheless one rich in biodiversity and it contains many different cultures. For these reasons it is worthy of global attention. The dynamics of its situation and the character of its human-natural environment interaction could also provide useful insights into other developing regions undergoing similar changes.
Research Interests: Asian Studies, Economics, Environmental Economics, Tourism Studies, Indian studies, and 12 moreSustainable Development, Local Economic Development, China, Protected areas, Sustainable Tourism Development, Biodiversity Conservation, Sustainable Use of Wildlife, Nature Conservation, Xishuangbanna, Economics Of Natural Resources, Asian Economics, and Agricultural Pest Control
Author - Raj Kumar Sen
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Author - I.L. Soya-Serko
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Author - P.S. Ramakrishnan
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For the chapters of this out of print book see Individual Chapter names as per contents below l. Gandhi's Concept of Development and Nehru's Centralized Planning KARTIK C. ROY & CLEMENT A. TISDELL 2. Planned Development : Strategies,... more
For the chapters of this out of print book see Individual Chapter names as per contents below
l. Gandhi's Concept of Development and Nehru's Centralized Planning
KARTIK C. ROY & CLEMENT A. TISDELL
2. Planned Development : Strategies, Instruments and Processes and the Place of Environment in Indian Planning
KARTIK C. ROY &CLEMENT A. TISDELL
3. Ecology, Environment and Sustainable Rural Development in India
P. S. RAMAKRISHNAN
4. Technological Change, Environment and Sustainability of Rural Communities
KARTIK C. ROY & CLEMENT A. TISDELL
5. India's Economic Growth : How Far Has It Been Environment-friendly ?
RAJ KUMAR SEN
6. Environment versus Development: The Indian Experiences of
Narmada and Baliapal
RAJ KUMAR SEN
7. Environmental Problems in the Developing Countries by A D. 2000
I. L. SOYA-SERKO
8. Conclusion
RAJ KUMAR SEN
l. Gandhi's Concept of Development and Nehru's Centralized Planning
KARTIK C. ROY & CLEMENT A. TISDELL
2. Planned Development : Strategies, Instruments and Processes and the Place of Environment in Indian Planning
KARTIK C. ROY &CLEMENT A. TISDELL
3. Ecology, Environment and Sustainable Rural Development in India
P. S. RAMAKRISHNAN
4. Technological Change, Environment and Sustainability of Rural Communities
KARTIK C. ROY & CLEMENT A. TISDELL
5. India's Economic Growth : How Far Has It Been Environment-friendly ?
RAJ KUMAR SEN
6. Environment versus Development: The Indian Experiences of
Narmada and Baliapal
RAJ KUMAR SEN
7. Environmental Problems in the Developing Countries by A D. 2000
I. L. SOYA-SERKO
8. Conclusion
RAJ KUMAR SEN
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The following are the PowerPoint slides which I prepared for one of my five presentations at Chengdu (Sichuan) University, China. These were given in May, 2017. This one was given on 19 May to Undergraduates in Environmental Studies.
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The following PowerPoint slides were prepared for a presentation to Graduate Students in Environment Science of Chengdu (Sichuan) University for a presentation given on Tuesday 23 May 2017. During my visit in May 2017, I made five... more
The following PowerPoint slides were prepared for a presentation to Graduate Students in Environment Science of Chengdu (Sichuan) University for a presentation given on Tuesday 23 May 2017. During my visit in May 2017, I made five presentations at Chengdu University, China.
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Subsequently, I was asked if a copy of this thesis could be made available on ResearchGate. This has now been done. I only had a carbon copy which unfortunately was blurry but still quite readable. This copy was used to put this item on... more
Subsequently, I was asked if a copy of this thesis could be made available on ResearchGate. This has now been done. I only had a carbon copy which unfortunately was blurry but still quite readable. This copy was used to put this item on ResearchGate. At the time this thesis was completed, word processing and photocopying were still unavailable. The thesis was written at a time in which the milk industry in New South Wales (and in Australia generally) was tightly regulated. Since then, it has been deregulated. In many cases, this has resulted in economic hardship for dairy farmers and considerable structural change in the industry, for example, a reduction in the number of milk processors and dairy farms. The latter on average have become larger in terms of land sizes and farm amalgamations have been common. Dairy farms have also, on the whole, become more capital-intensive. The thesis contains historical background on the institutional development of the milk industry in NSW up to 1960, an outline of reasons for regulation of the industry, some theory and