Analogies

sommaire
SALAH MEJRI
Présentation
ESA ITKONEN (Université de Turku, Finlande)
Pour L'analogie
CHRISTINE PORTELANCE (Université du Québec/Rimouski, Canada)
Sémantique du goût: quand l'analogie et le figement construisent l'intersubjectivité
SERGE TCHOUGOUNNIKOV (Université de Bourgogne, France)
Le sentiment comme facteur sémantique: la sémantique représentationnelle entre la linguistique psychologique et le formalisme
ÉRIC CASTAGNE (Université de Reims-Champagne-Ardenne, France)
Intercompréhension et analogies entre langues voisines: entre transparences et opacités. Le cas des séquences figées
HAMIDA TRABELSI (I.S.E.A.H du Kef, Tunisie)
Analogie et grammaticalisation: Deux procédés du changement grammatical distincts mais complémentaires
PIERRE ARNAUD (Université de Lyon, France)
L'analogie dans la dénomination binominale des concepts combinatoires en français
JOANNA CHOLEWA (Université de Białystok, Pologne)
Conceptualisation du mouvement à l'exemple de quelques verbes à orientation verticale et direction négative
LOTFI ABOUDA & MARIE SKROVEC (Université d'Orléans, France)
Du mouvement au figement: pragmaticalisation de la forme on va dire. Étude micro-diachronique sur un corpus oral
SARA RALIĆ (Sorbonne-Paris 4, France)
La rencontre des sens dans l'expression défigée, ou l'économie du défigement
Mª ISABEL GONZALEZ-REY (Universidad de Santiago de Compostela)
Une approche analogique à la compétence phraséologique: une double compétence, intégrale et intégrée
BOHDANA LIBROVA (Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, France)
Pour une description des degrés de figement des locutions martiniquaises: exemple des séquences verbo-nominales fè + N et bay + N
MARKO VIDAK (Sorbonne-Paris 4, France)
Le mot-dièse (hashtag): émergence d'une nouvelle forme de figement dans une diachronie très courte
LUCY MICHEL (Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, France)
Le genre grammatical, entre motivation et figement: questions de sémantique
MARIANGELA ALBANO (Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris 3, France)
Le tissu analogique du figement:les proverbes créoles antillais et leurs versions en français
OLIVIER SOUTET (Sorbonne-Paris 4, France)
Le R français entre phonétique, morphologie, et psychosémiologie
KARMELE ALBERDI & NATALIA ARREGUI (Université de Grenade, Espagne)
Culture et identité. Le fabuleux univers d'Eduardo Mendoza
CATHERINE CHAUVIN (Université de Lorraine, France)
Polysémie prépositionnelle entre invariance, figement et analogie: une étude de cas en anglais (She was in high heels, in her makeup, ?in a belt)
LEÏLA BEN HAMAD (Université de Sousse, Tunisie)
Sur la prétendue polysémie des locutions «figées»: une étude de cas
LIANE STROEBEL (Université Technique de Rhénanie-Westphalie, Aix-la-Chapelle, Allemagne)
L'influence du concept de source — une analyse contrastive des extensions et des restrictions sémantiques du verbe «monter»
ALEKSANDAR MIJATOVIĆ (Université de Rijeka, Croatie)
La polysémiosis ou la polysémie comme capacité : la notion de sens linguistique chez Bréal, Bergson et Deleuze
ÉLIANE KOTLER (Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, France)
La polysémie au service de la polémique: le cas des pamphlets d'Agrippa d'Aubigné
CAMILLE COLIN (Sorbonne Nouvelle-Paris 3, France)
L'analogie en œnologie: Pour une petite sémantique œnologique
JEAN-RENÉ LADMIRAL (Université de Paris 10, France)
Analogie et littéralité à la lumière de la traduction

Riflessioni linguistiche sul primo aspetto fondamentale
che caratterizza la lingua dei segni, ossia i parametri formazionali,
conosciuti anche come cheremi, considerando il loro aspetto interessante di analogia e omologia con la lingua vocale.
Per conservare la fruibilità del corpus, quest’ultimo è accompagnato da
riferimenti fotografici descrittivi dei concetti presi in analisi.

Mathematics continues to play its active role in the rise and advancement of civilizations by constantly preserving its place in the foundation of science, such as the existence of water for the continuation of life. It deprives those who think that they can live without math without progress, making it a toy for advanced societies and makes them powerless. By supporting those who want to take care of themselves with their superior latent power, it provides features that will dominate the future in many fields such as security, architecture, commercial and economic. It will not be so easy to obtain and deal with mathematics that includes such an effective structure. It takes a lot of effort and time to win something valuable. Unfortunately, at this point, many problems manifest themselves today. Many approaches and researches have been made on how to approach mathematics, how to learn and how to teach it. Today, many different teaching methods have been used to make mathematics more abstract and more concrete. Elementary and Secondary School Mathematics Education Programs (1-8th Grades) (MONE, 2018), which have just started to be implemented, try to break the negative attitudes of students towards mathematics by comparing them with concrete concepts as much as possible. This method, called Analogy (Simulation), can be defined as the process of understanding the unknown state or event by establishing relationships and comparisons between the two events or situations. With a strategy that facilitates learning by helping to relate the information that the student has previously learned with the information he / she will learn, it can be facilitated in the expression of a difficult or complex concept. At this point, the aim of analogies is to make learning permanent by establishing a relationship between the concepts according to a certain part or feature by simplifying the things to be learned and to perform relational learning. When creating an analogy, it is necessary to use a previously known phenomenon / situation to explain a new situation or phenomenon encountered for the first time. The situation that is encountered and learned / taught for the first time here is called “target”, and the previously known familiar phenomenon / situation that will be used to explain this situation is called “source”. Studies have revealed that it is important for students and teachers to develop their own analogies for higher level learning. In this study, what are the examples of analogy used in mathematics teaching and how these analogies are used are given. This study, which aims to identify the analogies used in mathematics teaching, was carried out based on the qualitative approach. Determining the analogy samples used requires a detailed examination of the studies (articles, textbooks, question banks, etc.) carried out in this field. Therefore, the document analysis method, which is one of the most suitable methods that can be used in qualitative approaches, has been adopted as a method in research. As a result of the study, it was determined that different mathematical analogies were used in different categories such as analogies according to their relations, presentation format, condition, task and wealth level.

The main goal of this paper is to show that the teaching methods of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) are successful tools for engineering education. As utilized by The Prophet (PBUH) to successfully deliver his divine message, the literature review highlights the use of analogies and active learning have a positive impact on both performance and the motivation of students to learn. Moreover, these teaching strategies engage students in higher thinking to be deeply involved in learning. From this perspective, the success of the utilization of the teaching methodology of our Beloved Teacher (PBUH) is demonstrated by the fact that the performance of thirty-eight (69%) students was higher in a process control course than the average performance in the department. Additionally, the results also show that the combined methodology, including analogies and active learning, increased the intrinsic motivation of twenty-two (40%) students.

The paper has been prepared in connection with the 120th anniversary of the Zuevsky burial ground. Zuevsky (Zuevy Kliuchi I) burial ground is one of the few large Ananyino necropolises in the cis-Kama region, which items are used in cultural and chronological schemes of the early Iron Age antiquities. At the same time, there is still no complete publication of the monument. The author analyzes a collection of items used as the horse equipment. Details of horse harness during the I millennium BC got significant changes. Its comparative study in different regions allows to make conclusions of the horseman culture on the Kama river, time and directions of contacts with early nomade societies of Eurasia. The items of horse equipment take an important place in the dating and chronology of monuments. The selection of horse equipment in Zuevsky burial is not numerous, but it is represented by the most part of categories. Dating of ones fits into the framework of the middle period of the Ananyino culture (according to Sergey Kuzminykh and Andrew Chizhevsky) – 6th–5th BC. The items of horse equipment from the Zuevsky burials despite their fragmented nature demonstrate common features with other early Ananyino cemeteries. The presence in the materials of the burial ground of objects characteristic of the early Scythian complex allows the author to make an assumption about probably earlier beginning of the Zuevsky necropolis functioning.

Research on forecasting is extensive and includes many studies that have tested alternative methods in order to determine which ones are most effective. We review this evidence in order to provide guidelines for forecasting for marketing. The coverage includes intentions, Delphi, role playing, conjoint analysis, judgmental bootstrapping, analogies, extrapolation, rule-based forecasting, expert systems, and econometric methods. We discuss research about which methods are most appropriate to forecast market size, actions of decision makers, market share, sales, and financial outcomes. In general, there is a need for statistical methods that incorporate the manager's domain knowledge. This includes rule-based forecasting, expert systems, and econometric methods. We describe how to choose a forecasting method and provide guidelines for the effective use of forecasts including such procedures as scenarios.

Figures of speech function as linguistic devices of standardisation and cultural codification. Vietnam analogies and metaphors have been widely invoked with respect to South Africa’s Border War. This article seeks to understand why this is so by way of an analysis of the parallels between the conflicts in Southeast Asia and southern Africa. It suggests that Vietnam has become a template for representing southern Africa’s conflicts. This is not necessarily a consciously derivative process. Rather, it is in keeping with the way in which the re-imagining and memories of wars tends to replicate one another even though they might be geographically and temporally remote. It is my argument that the cultural memory of past wars shape present war experience to a remarkable degree and that the representation of the Border War has been influenced by the global diffusion of American culture.

Literature has shown that effective teachers have succeeded in making students feel good about school and learning, thus increasing student achievement. Moreover, students in an actively taught class do a better job of learning (memorizing) the material they are exposed to, compared to those in a passively taught section. The main goal of this paper is to show that the teaching methods of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) are successful tools for engineering education. First, to fully deliver his message, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) addressed the hearts of followers to become the beloved one in order to inspire them to listen to his message. Secondly, in order to maximize the effects of his message, he used a type of speech that made his followers think during his educational methods. He utilized analogies and active learning strategies to enhance the imagination and curiosity of the listeners. As utilized by The Prophet (PBUH), the literature review highlights the use of analogies and active learning have a positive impact on both performance and the motivation of students to learn. Moreover, these teaching strategies engage students in higher thinking to be deeply involved in learning. From this perspective, the success of the utilization of the teaching methodology of our Beloved Teacher (PBUH) is demonstrated by the fact that the performance of thirty-eight (69%) students was higher in a process control course than the average performance in the department. Additionally, the results also show that the combined methodology, including analogies and active learning, increased the intrinsic motivation of twenty-two (40%) students. Abstrak: Literatur telah menunjukkan bahwa guru yang efektif telah berhasil membuat siswa merasa nyaman dengan sekolah dan pembelajaran, sehingga meningkatkan prestasi siswa. Selain itu, siswa di kelas yang diajar secara aktif melakukan pekerjaan yang lebih baik dalam mempelajari (menghafal) materi yang mereka hadapi, dibandingkan dengan siswa yang diajarkan secara pasif. Tujuan utama dari tulisan ini adalah menunjukkan bahwa metode pengajaran Nabi Muhammad (SAW) adalah metode yang berhasil pada pendidikan teknik. Pertama, untuk menyampaikan dakwahnya secara utuh, Nabi Muhammad (SAW) berpesan di hati para pengikutnya untuk menjadi yang dicintai agar menginspirasi mereka untuk mendengarkan dakwahnya. Kedua, untuk memaksimalkan efek pesannya, beliau menggunakan jenis pidato yang membuat pengikutnya berpikir selama metode pendidikannya. Dia menggunakan analogi dan strategi pembelajaran aktif untuk meningkatkan imajinasi dan keingintahuan pendengar. Seperti yang digunakan oleh Nabi (SAW), berbagai pustaka menyoroti penggunaan analogi dan pembelajaran aktif yang berdampak positif pada kinerja dan motivasi siswa untuk belajar. Selain itu, strategi pengajaran ini melibatkan siswa dalam pemikiran yang lebih tinggi untuk terlibat secara mendalam dalam pembelajaran. Dari perspektif ini, keberhasilan pemanfaatan metodologi pengajaran Nabi besar Muhammad SAW ditunjukkan oleh fakta bahwa kinerja 38 (69%) siswa lebih tinggi dalam kursus kontrol proses daripada kinerja rata-rata pada afiliasi. Selain itu, hasil juga menunjukkan bahwa metodologi gabungan, termasuk analogi dan pembelajaran aktif, meningkatkan motivasi intrinsik 22 (40%) siswa.

Versão corrigida e melhorada de um texto elaborado para integrar a tese Aculturação e Resistências nos Primórdios do Brasil, e do qual uma outra versão, menos perfeita e completa do que esta agora partilhada online, veio a ser inserida em volume dos Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, da Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, em homenagem a Frédéric Mauro.
Trata-se de um estudo do descobrimento humano do Brasil a partir de uma perspetiva que combina aspetos político-estratégicos, psicológico-procedimentais e mentais-intelectuais. (Texto revisto e partilhado no dia 30 de junho de 2018)

ADVERTÊNCIA -----  Um pequeno lapso afeta este texto: a troca do apelido do cronista de D. João II, Garcia de Resende, pelo do seu homónimo Garcia de Orta, botânico, numa das menções que lhe é feita. Entretanto, procedi à correção, que já consta de outra partilha deste estudo em Academia.edu, também disponível para leitura e download.

Do states learn from other states' experiences in international relations? This is the expectation of prominent theories. But empirical research indicates that foreign policy learning is based overwhelmingly on direct experience. I argue that vicarious learning has not been uncovered because we have not known where to look: there has been no well-developed theory leading to falsifiable expectations. Here I suggest a theory and test it on data for foreign policy beliefs and analogies used by Ukrainian and Russian elites. The results indicate that learning from vicarious success, or imitation, has a strong impact on beliefs following a major failure. This has implications for foreign policy decision making and for concepts of interests and change in systemic theories of international relations.

Analoji teorisi, metaforun temel elementlerinin (tarafeynin ki bunlar müşebbeh ve müşebbehün bihtir, yani benzeyen ve kendisine benzetilen) bir benzerlik ile birbirine bağlanması gerekliliğinden dolayı en mühim teorilerden biridir. Teşbih esasına göre ilerleyen metaforik yapıların her birini metafor saymak mümkün olmayacağı ve bu ayrım daha en başta Aristoteles'in tanımı ile sabitlenemediği için teori ciddi anlamda tadilata ve tamirata ihtiyaç duyar. Aristoteles'in Poetika'daki (1457b 6-9) tasnifinin son kısmı; yani dördüncü taşıma türü "analoji" esaslıdır. Lausberg'e göre Aristoteles'in metafor tasnifinin ilk iki türü sonraki terminolojiye göre metafor sayılmaz; bilakis bunlar sinekdokidir. Coenen nazarında üçüncüsü tek haneli benzetmeye dayalı metafor ve sonuncusu da iki haneli (taraflı) metafor olarak tasnif edilir. Eggs bunlardan sadece sonuncuyu metafor olarak geçerli görür. Hans Georg Coenen de onun gibi düşünür. Karl Bühler'e göre ise kelimenin tam anlamıyla metafor sadece analojidir. Bu izahatı sırf teori suretinde vermek amaca vasıl olmayı zorlaştıracağı için kapsama usta bir hikâyeciyi almayı uygun gördük. Fakat bu çeşit bir tetkikin nihai amacı zaten tahkiyeli metinlerde metaforik yapıyı tetkik olduğu için araç olan Sait Faik hikâyeleri bir nevi amaç haline gelmiştir. Yani Saik Faik'in ilk dönem hikâyelerini analojik bakımdan incelemek ile hem genel anlamda analoji teorisini hem de Coenen ve Aristoteles'in idrakini hem teker teker hem de mukayese içinde idrak etmek mümkün olacaktır. ABSTRACT The analogy theory is one of the most important theories because of the need for the main elements of the metaphor to be bound together with a similarity. Because it is not possible to call every metaphorical entity which is based on a similarity a metaphor and because this distinction could not be solidified at first with the description of Aristotle, the theory requires a great change and repair. The last part of Aristotle's classification in Poetics (1457b 6-9) is based on "analogy". According to Lausberg, the first two types of Aristotle metaphor classification are not metaphor according to the posterior terminology, on the contrary, they are synecdoche. In the think of Coenen, the third is a single-digit simile based on metaphor, and the latter is classified as a two-digit metaphor. Eggs only accept the last one as a metaphor. Hans Georg Coenen thinks like him. According to Karl Bühler, metaphor is literally only

This paper is a report of a study designed to investigate how students make predictions in novel situations and the role self generated analogies play in non-scientific reasoning. Mixed methods were used combining group discussions with questionnaires. One age-group from each level of the Greek education system were recruited. Thirteen, sixteen and twelve students participated from Year 4 (primary education), Year 9 (secondary education, Greek ‘Gimnasium’) and Year 11 (secondary education, Greek ‘Lyceum’) respectively from three different schools in Greece. Nine focus group discussions were conducted in combination with the administration of a six pictorial item questionnaire. Students’ responses were analysed to ascertain whether students’ predictions drew on the use of analogies. Also, responses were analysed to see if students of different ages drew on the same analogies when made predictions in the same novel situations. It emerged that there were many similarities among students’ predictions as well as the analogies that students used to explain the latter. For the explanations students provided for the predictions they made a total of 21 analogies were identified. The findings indicate that connecting analogies to novel situations was important in the construction of predictions. The children in Years 4 and 9 made the same predictions using similar, and in many cases identical analogies in their predictions. Whilst students in Year 11 made the same predictions and did make use of those same, similar, analogies the frequency with which they drew on analogies to make predictions appeared much less than for the two younger groups. This study found that students regularly make use of analogies, rather than scientific thinking. Results also indicated that the analogies students use derived from phenomena they observe at a very young age. Teachers need to be aware of the nature of analogies students make use of in order to help them use the analogies correctly and in accordance with concepts they are taught facilitating the way they make sense of abstract scientific knowledge.

Policymakers and stakeholders are asking corporations to innovate and synchronize their practices with that of the natural environment. In this hopefully thought-provoking position paper, we use a comprehensive review of literature and industrial practice in gradually building strong arguments that bio-inspired design is a possible pathway to achieve this. This approach is directly inspired by nature, given that it is nature that ultimately will suggest novel ways to conserve biodiversity and provide human beings with a sustainable lifestyle. We strive to show the value of bio-inspired products and services, not only by virtue of being more environmentally sustainable, but, when consolidated in a concerted business model and value chain to lead to a sustainable competitive advantage for companies.

يكمن الهدف الرئيسي من هذه الورقة البحثية في إثبات أن أساليب التدريس التي اتبعها النبي محمد (صلى الله عليه وسلم) هي بمثابة أدوات ناجحة للتعليم الهندسي، فكما استعان النبي (صلى الله عليه وسلم) بأساليب التدريس هذه لإيصال رسالته الإلهية بنجاح، فإن استعراض المؤلفات يسلط الضوء على استخدام أسلوب القياس والتعلم النشط الذي له تأثير إيجابي في كل من الأداء وتحفيز الطلاب على التعلم. فضلًا عن ذلك، فإن إستراتيجيات التدريس تجعل الطلاب ينخرطون في التفكير ويشاركون بقوة في عملية التعلم. ومن هذا المنظور، يتضح نجاح استخدام منهجية التدريس لمعلمنا الحبيب (صلى الله عليه وسلم) من خلال الحقيقة القائلة بأن أداء ثمانية وثلاثين طالبًا بنسبة (69%) كان أعلى في الحلقة الدراسية لمادة التحكم في العمليات من متوسط الأداء في القسم. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تظهر النتائج أيضًا أن المنهجية المركبة؛ التي تتضمن أسلوب القياس والتعلم النشط، زادت من الحافز الذاتي لاثنين وعشرين طالبًا بنسبة (40%).

WOODEN ARTIFACTS FROM JIAOHE (YAR-HOTO) CEMETERY
IN TURFAN BASIN IN XINJIANG: ANALOGIES AND DATINGS

The ancient city of Jiaohe (Yar-Hoto) is situated 10 km to the west from the modern Turfan city in Xinjiang. According to Chinese chronicles, in Han times Jiaohe was the capital of Jushi (Gushi) princedom. In the season of 1993-1994 at the cemetery to the north of the ancient city two big graves and more than 50 ordinary burials were excavated. Both big and small graves have been plundered; almost no grave good have remained. Only some burials gave stray finds. The whole cemetery yielded about 40 wooden artifacts. Chinese archaeologists describe arrows, quivers, knives, wallet-storages, buckles, fasteners, statuettes, vessels and other categories.
They consider the culture of Jiaohe cemetery to be a local one, belonging to the nobility and common people of Jushi (Gushi). Our analysis of pottery found in Jiaohe burials supports such an opinion. But the attribution of all the graves to Han period is a matter of doubts. A lot of bone and/or antler horse harness equipment from Jiaohe, especially details of saddles have direct analogies in Russian Altai, in frozen tombs of Pazyryk culture, which are dated to the IV century B.C. Many of wooden artifacts from Jiaohe also do have analogies in Pazyryk culture: wooden models of mirrors with side handle, wooden ribs for soft leather quivers, wooden models of knives. Turfan wooden vessels are not so well preserved co compare them with Pazyryk ones.
Wooden wallet-storages like the ones from Jiaohe were never met in Pazyryk culture, but are quite common for burrows of Yaloman II burial ground in Altai, which belongs to hunno-sarmatian time (I cent. B.C. – IV cent. A.D.). Wooden statuettes from Jiaohe are quite original. They differ from Chinese Han time grave figurines, both wooden and clay, because the latter ones do always have hands and legs. No wooden statuettes were ever met in Altai. In Kazakhstan and Central Asia wood in archaeological sites is poorly preserved because of local climate and soils. But some of the Central Asian sites, which belong to the I century B.C. – IV century A.D. have yielded terracotta or alabaster “idols”, closely resembling Jiaohe specimen: short cylinders with the neck and face just marked. It is generally considered, that these statuettes were transferred from Western China (i.e. Xinjiang) by Yuezhi or Wusun tribes.
So we may assume that burials of Jiaohe cemetery belong to different periods of time and different cultures. The distribution of different categories of grave goods among the graves of different constructions can help us to determine more precisely their ethnic and cultural attribution.

РЕЗЮМЕ
Городище Цзяохэ (Яр-Хото)  расположено в 10 км к западу от г. Турфана, центра одноименного уезда в Синьцзян-Уйгурском автономной районе КНР. В начале 90-х гг. XX в. раскопан и издан могильник к северу от городища. Всего встречено около 40 деревянных изделий. Выделяются стрелы, колчаны, ножи, футляры-пеналы, застежки, пряжки, статуэтки, посуда и другие категории. Китайские археологи считают культуру могильника Цзяохэ местной, турфанской. Анализ керамики позволяет согласиться с таким мнением, но предложенная китайскими исследователями датировка памятника только ханьским временем вызывает обоснованные сомнения. Очень многие деревянные изделия, в первую очередь, связанные с предметами вооружения, костяные (роговые) детали конской сбруи, и особенно седельные принадлежности из Цзяохэ имеют прямые аналогии на российской территории, в первую очередь, в памятниках пазырыкской культуры. Это обстоятельство позволяет датировать многие его погребения IV в. до н.э. Другая часть  находок из дерева встречает аналогии в памятниках гунно-сарматского времени, так что могильник к северу от городища Цзяохэ оказывается разновременным и разнокультурным.

This systematic mapping study consisted of tracking the scientific literature that addresses the issue of analogies as a didactic strategy in science teaching. An analogy can be understood as comparing an existing knowledge with a new knowledge to achieve a better understanding of the new knowledge as a result of the comparison of similarities; or in other words, use students' own concepts to introduce new concepts using comparisons between the two. The purpose of this study was to identify, analyze, synthesize and evaluate research works that touched on this topic, with this, to have knowledge about the models of uses of analogies, most used didactic strategies, research methodologies in this field and how to evaluate the learning effectiveness of working with analogies. The methodology that was used is the systematic mapping study; Five questions were posed that guided the information tracking process. Later, the electronic documents in English for the last twenty years were traced in five databases related to the educational field. Finally, it is concluded by responding to the purpose of the study where it is evident that, broadly speaking, the research methodologies in this field are quantitative as well as qualitative, to implement analogies, resources such as images, illustrations, textual indications and audiovisual aids are used, it is usually evaluated the effectiveness of using analogies with multiple choice tests, oral tests of creating analogies by students.

Generation, the creation of new life, posed the ultimate challenge for early modern anatomists. Even when they gained access to women's bodies and fetuses, they had to contend with the ways in which generative organs, more than other body parts, alter with actions and age. Their accounts of these structures focused on variations in shape, size and texture, and on the fluids, eggs and fetuses they contain. Continual changes during intercourse, pregnancy and over a lifetime, together with the small size of nas-cent creatures, the many clear liquids and the impossibility of watching conception, all complicated efforts to observe, describe and understand generation. From the sixteenth century, European anatomists prioritized knowledge of bodies acquired through sight over descriptions by ancient authorities, even as they consciously followed Galen and Aristotle. 1 In his monumental De humani corporis fabrica (On the fabric of the human body, 1543), Andreas Vesalius exhorted students to refrain from blindly trusting books, to look for themselves and to compare Galen's descriptions with his. 2 'Autopsia' , seeing with one's own eyes, soon became the watchword. A century later, in Exercitationes de generatione animalium (Anatomical exercitations concerning the generation of living creatures, 1651), William Harvey explained his methodology and assured readers that 'per autopsiam' they would identify errors in Aristotle's and Galen's accounts of how fetuses are conceived and form, and make new discoveries of their own. 3 Seeing was central to anatomists' debates: insisting that Nature's book was open and legible to readers who knew how to look, they criticized others for not seeing and developed their own indirect ways of viewing generative parts and processes. Yet at the same time, echoing long-standing disagreements among natural philosophers, anatomists and physicians, they worried about the practical and epistemological limitations of sight. These worries were especially acute when they tried to explain the workings of the generative organs, parents' contributions and fetal formation. This chapter examines how anatomists produced pictures, developed figurative language and ventured analogies, and argues that these techniques were central to their use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.

During the fourth millennium BCE, in southern Mesopotamia, the Urukeans invented seven remarkable tools – the ard, the normalised brick mould, writing, accounting, the harp, the vertical weaving loom and the cone image – which the foundations of our civilisation still rely upon today. These inventions, among which was the primitive harp, have been found to mirror biological mechanisms which enable our sensory organs to perceive the world in which we live, and to codify it in order to transmit its representation to the brain. With regard to the primitive harp, its inspiration came from the organ of Corti, the sensory-nervous structure of the cochlea. A question remains as to how man could have created such an instrument at a time when the anatomy and physiology of the inner ear was impossible to perceive and comprehend. In order to answer this question, the authors have combined knowledge that was fragmented and separated into various fields, such as archaeomusicology, cell biology and neuroscience. This is how they discovered that there was a logical link between the Urukean harp and the organ of Corti.

In this paper I propose a type-hierarchy approach to provide an intersubjective framework for the evaluation of evolutionary analogies. This approach develops David Hull’s and others’ attempts to provide full generalisation for selection processes, in order to show that sociocultural development and, particularly, scientific change can be considered as an instance of Darwinian selection. I argue that the recent work by Eileen Cornell Way on type hierarchies can offer the kind of generalisation needed to solve the main problems that still affect Hull’s theory and to show that the evolutionary analogy is, after all, only a particular way of grouping phenomena together. If Hull’s main objective is a unified theory of selection, which supports the idea that science selection and natural selection obey the same laws, I also argue that the type hierarchy approach to models shows that this objective is unsustainable as it stands, and is in need of further development. I will firstly introduce the general outline of the type hierarchy approach to models. Then, after a brief recapitulation of Hull’s main points and difficulties, I will try and construct a hierarchy for a general abstraction of selection processes. Finally I will introduce the main criticisms that Hull’s work has faced from philosophers and scientists, and show how they compare with my proposal.

Instead of an abstract, a "prelude"
What realities can be

First of all, realities can be real or abstract, synthetic or imagined. The moment we embody realities and are able to share them, they become real for us. The critical step is accepting or resisting them, for their existence is unquestionable, as we realize form and content, functions, positions, proportions and consequences. This article is designed to bring such realities of Life and Society into awareness by plotting and editing them in old forms and new, the combined and sharable spaces which we can call : situation or problem-learning-solution spaces. It is important to accept, address and focus them, instead of dismissing them as flat facsimiles or imaginary, not sharable, subjective shadows. Such a merging, modifying and playing instead of fighting realities, as we do and can not fight the ugly nightmare or dream of a child by trying to discuss it away with words and hollow arguments.
What we are talking about here is mental mobility, as the most natural and cheapest form of healing. We are talking about creating and editing categories and boundaries, and bridging cultures, mind-sets and forms of representations. Changing focus, subjects and objects of attention.

Additional degrees of freedom (mental mobility). How do we gain them?

First, change the optic: lenses, views, pictures, perspectives,...
Second, play with maps, models, paradigms and world-views (I would like to call it Views of Life&Nature) and accept co-existent and coherent representations (going beyond dualistic right or wrong and hierarchical orders as the only possible model)
Third, change positions and integrate/orchestrate even incompatible views, perspectives, and models.
Finally, imagine and design a continuum or Navigation and Orientation Space consisting of each three dimensions in three connected spaces - Cognitive Panorama (3Space/Time).

CHAPTERS:
1. Change the optic: lenses and perspectives
2. Change the maps, models, and paradigms
3. Change positions and purpose to relate/integrate/orchestrate 'incompatible'views, perspectives, and models.
4. A Navigation and Orientation Space

Le dernier ouvrage  du philosophe toulousain Yves Floucat (Pour une métaphysique de l’être en son analogie. De Heidegger à Thomas d’Aquin, « Philosophie », Artège – Lethielleux, Paris-Perpignan, 2016, 223 pages.) reprend à nouveau frais la défense et l’illustration d’une saisie profondément métaphysique de l’être et de son analogie. Occasion avec lui de revisiter ou de consolider nos fondamentaux et d’en mesurer les enjeux.

“Like race” analogies have been critiqued from various perspectives, and this article enters that conversation to engage those criticisms from a rhetorical perspective. In short, this article makes a case for resisting proscriptive judgments about these
analogies until they have been contextualized and afforded their complexity as rhetorical figures. A rhetorical perspective of analogies engages them not as truth statements or as part of propositional logic (a monological view of communication)
but instead as invitations to explore similar sets of relationships that are qualified through continued dialogue (a dialogical view of communication). Through a case study of a highly recirculated issue of the Advocate, this essay demonstrates the productive possibilities and limitations of analogical reasoning.

Literature has shown that effective teachers have succeeded in making students feel good about school and learning, thus increasing student achievement. Moreover, students in an actively taught class do a better job of learning (memorizing) the material they are exposed to, compared to those in a passively taught section. The main goal of this paper is to show that the teaching methods of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) are successful tools for engineering education.  First, to fully deliver his message, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) addressed the hearts of followers to become the beloved one in order to inspire them to listen to his message. Secondly, in order to maximize the effects of his message, he used a type of speech that made his followers think during his educational methods. He utilized analogies and active learning strategies to enhance the imagination and curiosity of the listeners. As utilized by The Prophet (PBUH), the literature review highlights the use of analogies and active le...

Cet article met en discussion l’affirmation d’Aristote selon laquelle l’exemple serait un argument privilégié du genre délibératif. La première partie vise à identifier, sur le plan théorique, les propriétés de l’exemple qui en feraient un outil particulièrement adapté à la délibération. La seconde partie consiste en l’analyse de quelques exemples utilisés comme arguments par Barack Obama dans son discours de State of the Union du 25 janvier 2011. Il s’agit ainsi de voir dans quelle mesure il est possible d’identifier un « type » d’exemple délibératif.

In a recent paper, Fábio Perin Shecaira (2013) proposes a defence of Waller’s deductivist schema for moral analogical argumentation. This defence has several flaws, the most important of them being that many good analogical arguments would be yielded bad or deficient. Besides, Shecaira misrepresents my alternative account as something in between deductivism and non-deductivism. This paper is both an attempt at solving this misunderstanding and an analysis and criticism of Waller and Shecaira’s forms of deductivism.

This dissertation builds on the literature of "The Uses of History by Decision-Makers". It maintains that foreign policy-makers are influenced by ideas, which are generated with recourse to History, and disseminated through influential publications---one of the most influential of which is the US Council for Foreign Relations' journal, Foreign Affairs. It argues that the historical references in this journal, in terms of their scope and temporal origin, are a key input for US foreign policy-makers decisions. Where the choice of historical references can be criticized for being clichéd, biased or epistemologically flawed---as is the case in Foreign Affairs ---a corresponding negative impact on US foreign policy can be inferred. Furthermore, analysis of the choice of historical references in this journal supports the idea that a "Gravity model" rather than a "Generational model" may better predict the impact, durability and perceived relevance of historical events and individuals.