Law and Language

This work addresses the impact of language diversity and nation-specific doctrinal structures on harmonized company law in the EU. With this aim, two emblematic case studies will be analysed. The first case study is related to the definition of 'merger' adopted in the Company Law Directive 2017/1132 (originally in the Third Company Law Directive and the Cross-Border Merger Directive); by relying on the example of the SEVIC case decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), it will be shown that scholars' and courts' conception of the definition of 'merger' varies according to own domestic doctrinal structures. The second case study is related to the notion of 'registered office', which is key for establishing the scope of several harmonizing provisions and the freedom of establishment; this paper analyses termi-nological fluctuations across language versions of EU legislation and the impact of domestic taxonomies and legal debates upon the interpretation of these notions. These case studies show that company law concepts, despite their highly technical nature, are influenced by discourse constructions conducted within national interpretative communities, and by the language used to draft statutory instruments and discuss legal issues. The task of the CJEU is to counterbalance these local tendencies, and yet it is unlikely that doctrinal structures, rooted in national languages and legal cultures, will disappear.

Abstract: Section 2 of the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act, 1951 provides for the adoption of Hindi as the language to be used for the official purposes in Uttar Pradesh. The state Government amended the Three Language Formula in 1963 which substituted mother tongue of Muslim population. The imperatives of modern education in English language and conservation of script, language, and culture became dexterous for the Urdu speaking population. The Uttar Pradesh Official Language (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982 recognized Urdu for the first time as second language. The express verbis declaration of Urdu as the second official language also reflected in U.P. Official Language (3rd Amendment) Ordinance, 1983 and Uttar Pradesh Official Language (Amendment) Act, 1989. The Urdu speaking populace's happens to be sizable in state of Uttar Pradesh but the language did not rise proportionately over the last seven decades. The paper analyses the legal and judicial policies for the protection of the Urdu language in the light of the U.P. Hindi Sahitya Sammelan v. State Of U.P. verdicts of the Allahabad High Court and Supreme Court of India.
Keywords: Urdu Language, Muslim Population, Linguistic Diversity, Composite Culture Constitutional Protection, Uttar Pradesh.

Η μεταρρύθμιση του αλφαβήτου στη Σοβιετική Ένωση συνδέεται άμεσα με το ζήτημα του γλωσσικού προγραμματισμού και του εκρωσισμού που είχε προηγηθεί και συνεχίσθηκε. Η εκπαίδευση διευκόλυνε την άρση του αναλφαβητισμού αλλά για μία συγκεκριμένη γλώσσα. Το ίδιο φαινόμενο έχει παγκόσμιο χαρακτήρα αν και η περίπτωση της Σοβιετικής Ένωσης θεωρείται η μεγαλύτερη προσπάθεια γλωσσικού προγραμματισμού στον κόσμο.

The chapter explores the historical background to plurilingual treaty-making as well as the practice of the PCIJ and ICJ to the interpretation of plurilingual treaties. The chapter includes a detailed examination of Article 33 of the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties and the effect of this article on ICJ practice.

This work points toward a need for a plainer legal language: a legal language that is not a wall between those seeking justice and justice itself. We, as Law professionals, have become increasingly comfortable with a type of technical language that excludes those who have not entered the classrooms of Law Schools. And we often fail to find a problem with the fact that non-professionals need a “translator” –a
lawyer– to explain the contents of the rules and laws to them.

La notion de norme et de référence à la norme est absolument fondamentale pour qui s’intéresse aux langues humaines. Langues, dialectes, parlers et accents suivent tous des règles rigoureuses, que l’observation permet de déterminer. Il n’y a pas de langue sans grammaire : la langue est une norme.
Cependant, les langues du monde ne jouissent pas toutes de statuts égaux. Dans certains États, le ou les idiomes parlés par la majorité de la population sont normés (pourvus d’une norme de référence) et normalisés, c’est à dire soutenus par un appareil administratif et éducatif conséquent.
À l’inverse, de nombreuses communautés linguistiques, minoritaires ou trop pauvres, sont obligées d’utiliser d’autres langues que leur langue maternelle pour avoir accès à l’enseignement ou aux services publics. La normalisation des langues vernaculaires de ces groupes laissés pour compte est souhaitable pour deux raisons : 1. la préservation de la diversité culturelle de la planète ; 2. l’établissement de systèmes éducatifs et d’information plus performants, parce qu’utilisant la langue maternelle des communautés considérées.
Fixer la norme d’une langue peu décrite est loin d’être une sinécure, comme le montre l’exemple capverdien. Et en fin de compte, cette nouvelle norme n’aura d’utilité que si les pouvoirs publics favorisent sa normalisation, à savoir sa diffusion systématique auprès des populations concernées. L’aventure de la normalisation des langues vaut cependant la peine d’être vécue, en particulier dans nombre de pays du Tiers-Monde. En normant et en normalisant, le linguiste a un rôle essentiel à jouer dans les processus de développement économique.

The Chinese provinces are a crazy patchwork quilt of languages and dialects, where the histories of migrations and cultural enclaves, the tides of influence from empire and commerce, the sperm trails that follow rivers and railway lines ... are recorded in a tangle of codes that no one has yet made a serious attempt to untangle. Note that these comments are obviously informal, not a part of systematic research. Chinese scholars themselves are now (2013) taking a much more thorough interest in dialects than was the case even in 2000.

Данная работа описывает ситуацию государственных языков в общественном пространстве г. Чебоксары. Она вписывается в рамки исследования по «лингвистическому ландшафту». В то же время, она исследует и выполнение Закона Чувашской Республики «О языках в Чувашской Республике» в данной области. Анализировано использование языков в зданиях, парках, надписях с названиями улиц, на дорожных знаках и информационных плакатах, в общественном транспорте, на общественных мероприятиях, праздниках и в социальной рекламе.

The ‘computerization’ of contract.
Smart, Data oriented, computable and self-driving contracts. An overview.

In this essay, we try to map the international debate about the evolution of concept of contract and his link with the new technologies. In the first part of the contribution, we shortly talk about the most fashionable kind of them, called ‘smart’ contracts. Afterwards, we analyze the prototype models of ‘intelligent’ contract, describing their features and triyng to verify if they can be understood by using the notions and categories of traditional contract doctrine. In the last part, we examine the phenomena of ‘algorhitmization’ of Law, and its influence on contract theory. We conclude by asserting that some of these phenomena are explainable and adjustable by classic theory of contract, while for the contract model named ‘self-driving contracts’ all modern legal systems aren’t able to deal with, suggesting and hoping for a global legal regulation of these ones.

P. S. Negli ultimi giorni ho avuto modo di rileggere tanto la versione pdf quanto quella  cartacea del contributo che qui si presenta ed ho  avuto modo di notare come il medesimo presenti (purtroppo) molti refusi ed errori di 'battitura'. Assumendomi la piena responsabilità di tale (spiacevole) realtà, mi scuso con tutti gli eventuali futuri lettori del saggio.

This proposal deals with a three-day workshop on Forensic Linguistics (henceforth FoLi). First part of the proposal deals with an introduction and scope of FoLi followed by its relevance in India in the second part. Structure and the method of the workshop presented in the third part followed by requirement in the fourth part.

Resumo: Este artigo objetiva expor caminhos e desafios para o trabalho acadêmico-científico e/ou técnico-profissional na/da relação entre a Linguística e o Direito. Primeiramente, identificam-se e distinguem-se três caminhos principais na definição de objetos linguístico-jurídicos: Linguística Forense; fala-em-interação e análises do discurso em contexto jurídico; e Direito Linguístico. A partir dessa identificação, destacamos desafios que podem ser enfrentados e, por fim, refletimos sobre uma questão de classe: como ocupar o lugar do "linguista" nos trabalhos possíveis na/da relação entre a Linguística e o Direito.

Књига Милоша Луковића, Развој српскога правног стила, издата пре тачно двадесет година, један је од ретких лингвистичких и функционалностилистичких осврта на правни подстил административног функционалног стила српског језика. Наиме, аутор на посебно одабраном корпусу истражује особине правног стила од средине 19. века до почетка 20. века. Корпус за који се аутор определио јесу правни прописи у Србији од 1868. до 1918. године. Књига носи и поднаслов Прилог историји језика и права у Србији тако да је намењена и лингвистима и правницима. Књига је писана јасним научним стилом уз обиље примера и упућивања на ширу лингвистичку и правну литературу. Корпус извора представљају све три врсте правних аката које обухвата појам правни пропис (устави, закони, подзаконски акти) (в. Луковић 1994: 74).  Развој српскога правног стила аутор дели у четири нумерисана и насловљена поглавља: (1) Приступ теми, (2) Стварање и прихватање вуковског језика, (3) Обликовање модерног језичког стандарда и (4) Синтаксичко-стилска својства правних прописа у Србији од 1868. до 1918. године у светлу развоја стандарднојезичке норме.

This thesis analyses criminal justice discourse as it relates to offensive language crimes in Australia. Across Australia, and elsewhere, it is a crime to use offensive, indecent or obscene language in or near a public place. These crimes are governed by broadly drafted provisions that allow police and judicial officers significant discretion in determining offensiveness. Although offensive language crimes can theoretically target a multitude of words and phrases, in practice, the laws are used to police and punish a small selection of swear words. Provisions that circumscribe offensive speech have a linguistic dimension. This dimension has been under-theorised in previous scholarship on the topic. Accordingly, my thesis places language at the centre of offensive language crimes, by interrogating how such crimes are represented and legitimised as a particular discursive formation within the criminal justice system. My thesis asks two questions: Firstly, how is offensive language represented in criminal justice discourse? Secondly, how are offensive language crimes legitimised in criminal justice discourse? I employ a distinct approach to these questions by employing critical discourse analysis (‘CDA’) as my primary methodological tool. CDA is not strictly a ‘method’, but rather, a loosely grouped body of work that views language as both shaping and shaped by society. Analysts works from the premise that we cannot neutrally represent reality. Instead, we construct (and reconstruct) reality, including social identities, subject positions, social relationships and systems of knowledge and belief, through language. I use the phrase ‘criminal justice discourse’ to describe socially constructed ways of signifying reality, through language, in the criminal justice system. My thesis situates its linguistic analysis of offensive language crimes in broader social, political and historical contexts. I draw into the frame linguistic research on swearing, and literature relating to metaphors, purity and disgust. The thesis structure is based on the following themes: language interpretation in the courts; swearing, danger and disgust; context; objective standards; and power, order and authority. These themes are derived from my doctrinal analysis of offensive language crimes and ideas that inform and legitimise the criminal punishment of swearing. My thesis reconceptualises how offensive language is interpreted in the criminal law. I extend existing scholarship by highlighting how criminal justice discourse creates and entrenches power inequalities, augments judicial discretion, ignores difference and promotes unfairness. I demonstrate how discourse shapes perceptions about things, people, ideas and words that are deemed ‘out of place’ and worthy of criminal sanction.

This chapter, first published in Japanese, outlines the field of ‘forensic linguistics’ [as at 2001]. It contrasts the forensic linguistic approach to applying linguistics in legal contexts with a different tradition of analysis: that usually known as Critical Discourse Analysis and/or as Critical Legal Studies. The author examines ‘meaning’ issues in particular, as a way of showing how treatment of specific interpretive questions exposes problematic assumptions underpinning the notion of linguistic expertise. The chapter concludes with a suggestion that, in a period of rapidly changing communication technologies and formats, notions of professional authority in respect of language and meaning may need to be reconsidered.

Three noted cases of Forensic Linguistics (henceforth FoLi) presented at first followed by a discussion about the scope of FiLi in India.
FoLi is the use of linguistic knowledge for the development of justices through the interpretation of law and to investigate the crime to reach the truth. It is an advanced forensic discipline in English speaking and European countries and widely used all aspects of the law, justice, and investigation. India is a multilingual country with 22 scheduled languages and around 150 languages with sizable speakers. Linguistic diversity is a challenge and a potential for rule of law and the investigation of truth in India. However, FoLi is not used in India at any level to address this challenges and the potential. An attempt is made in this class to introduce the different use of FoLi and certain proposals have been made to use and develop FoLi in India.

This essay highlights the main characteristics of the architecture of the Welsh house and provides an analysis of the influences on its design over the centuries. The various terms involved in the field are clearly explained before the discussion is expanded, and pertinent examples are used of different forms of architecture in Wales and their locations, demonstrating effectively the factors that influenced design and its development over the years.

There is a long-standing judicial commitment to interpreting language in legal texts according to its ‘ordinary meaning’.  That is, courts have uniformly agreed that words in legal texts should be interpreted in light of accepted standards of communication.  The constituent question of what makes some meaning the ordinary one and the evidential question of how the determinants of ordinary meaning are identified and conceptualized are thus of crucial importance to the interpretation of legal texts.  Yet, beyond very general characterizations or assumptions that the answers are self-evident, neither the constituent nor the evidential question has been comprehensively examined by courts or commentators.  This book provides a theory that answers the constituent question and a general framework for how the determinants of ordinary meaning (i.e., the evidential question) should be identified and developed.
The fundamental problem with the common process used by courts for determining the ordinary meaning of texts, such as significant reliance on acontextual dictionary definitions, is that it often does not result in interpretations that reflect the ordinary meaning of the textual language, or only coincidentally does so.  One main flaw in the judiciary’s approach is a failure to properly consider context.  Certainly, there is a tension between the inherent requirement of ordinary meaning that it be generalizable across contexts and the reality that meaning is inherently contextual.  A significant aspect of framing the ordinary meaning inquiry, and considering arguments about it, therefore involves considering the contribution that context makes to meaning.  One way to capture generalizable meanings is to conceive of ordinary meaning as being primarily based on semantic meaning.  Further, a distinction between ‘narrow context’ and ‘wide context’ can be made, with ordinary meaning being determined on the basis of consideration of facts from the ‘narrow context’.  In addition, one marked feature of interpretive principles is that they often serve to restrict the domains of legal texts, thereby creating a gap between literal meaning and ordinary meaning.  Yet framing ordinary meaning as being primarily based on semantic meaning, determined from consideration of ‘narrow context’, does not eliminate interpretive discretion.  When context is considered, the assignment of meaning invariably has an ineliminable element of interpreter discretion.  This is true with respect to indexicals and quantifiers, as well as other linguistic phenomena.  Nevertheless, focusing on the systematicities of language can often narrow the range of interpretive discretion and improve the judiciary’s determination of ordinary meaning.

Le langage des misérables ne se donne pas dans le cadre linguistique normal, il en excède par la destruction du cadre normatif grammatical, ainsi comme ses personnages face aux lois. Margi-naux de la société normale-où se présentent les normes juridiques, les misérables n'ont pas un droit de représentativité politique. Tout au contraire, la politique les exclut, et contre la parole de l'autorité ils n'ont aucune voix. Dans ce milieu littéraire représentatif de la pauvreté, Victor Hugo développe un langage pour ces misérables. Moyennant une analyse de leurs discours linguisti-ques, nous voudrions penser les conséquences de l'oppression de la pauvreté dans le discours, en retrouvant dans le manque de pouvoir linguistique un symptôme qui dénonce un autre problème scandaleux.