Reinforcement sensitivity theory

ABSTRACT In this article, we attempt to integrate Dickman's (1990) descriptive concept of Functional Impulsivity (FI) with Gray's (1970, 1991) Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). Specifically, we consider that FI bears great conceptual similarity to Gray's concept of reward-reactivity, which is thought to be caused by the combined effects of a Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS). In our first study, we examine the construct validity and structural correlates of FI. Results indicate that FI is related positively to measures of BAS and Extraversion, negatively to measures of BIS and Neuroticism, and is separate from Psychoticism and typical trait Impulsivity, which Dickman calls Dysfunctional Impulsivity (DI). In our second study, we use a go/no-go discrimination task to examine the relationship between FI and response bias under conditions of rewarding and punishing feedback. Results indicate that FI, along with two measures of BAS, predicted the development of a response bias for the rewarded alternative. In comparison, high DI appeared to reflect indifference toward either reward or punishment. We consider how these findings might reconcile the perspectives of Gray and Dickman and help clarify the broader understanding of Impulsivity.

The child version of the Carver and White (1994) BIS/BAS-scales (Muris et al., 2005) was used to assess sensitivity of the Behavioral Inhibition and the Behavioral Activation System in clinically anxious and non-anxious youth (n = 175, ages 8–18 years, 70 boys). Results supported the hypothesis that clinical anxiety is associated with overactivity in the BIS (Gray, 1982). Consistent with the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Gray & McNaughton, 2000) the BIS-scale consists of two subscales, one measuring BIS_Anxiety and one measuring FFFS_Fear. BIS-scores were higher in the anxious sample than in the non-anxious sample. BAS-scores were equal. Higher levels of BIS-activity were related with an increase in symptoms of anxiety and depression. BIS-scores were higher in girls than in boys, there were no gender differences in BAS-scores.

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory proposes that a neurobiological system, the Behavioral Activation System, defines individual differences on the subject’s sensitivity and reactivity to appetitive stimuli associated with mesocorticolimbic structures, while this system does not mediate aversive stimulus processing. However, Jeffrey A. Gray’s model also predicts the system’s antagonism between this appetitive system and another aversive stimulus sensitive system, the Behavioral Inhibitory System/Fight-Flight-Freeze System, mostly associated with limbic structures. Therefore, direct modulation of brain activation during appetitive stimulus processing should be expected from the Behavioral Activation System, while inverse modulation during aversive stimulus processing may be expected to reflect the system’s antagonism. Using the Sensitivity to Reward scale of the SPSR questionnaire to assess individual differences in the activity of the reward system, we present different behavioral and neuroimaging data to illustrate our view. The first experiment was based on a simple letter-judgment task while viewing erotic and aversive pictures selected from the International Affective Picture System. A second experiment employed a task performed by participants to detect infrequent aversive (i.e., stop) signals when responding to reward. The results from these studies were consistent with the idea that Behavioral Activation System-related personality traits mediate the brain activation associated with appetitive stimulus processing in reward-related areas, while it also showed its antagonism to aversive systems through a negative mediation on the limbic cortex activation. To conclude, sensitivity to reward may be understood as a form of impulsivity related to both better appetitive learning and poorer aversive learning.

Gray’s (1970) reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) was recently updated (Gray & McNaughton, 2000), but the changes have not received extensive empirical validation. The study tests three novel predictions of the revised RST. First, the behavioral activation system (BAS) is expected to be sensitive to both con- ditioned and unconditioned incentives. Second, the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is expected to be sensitive to conflicting incentives such as between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, and not to avoidance responses or aversive stimuli alone. Third, during approach-avoidance conflicts only, BAS is expected to moderate BIS responses to conflict such that individuals with high BAS show the strongest effect of BIS. In order to test these hypotheses, we developed a novel incentive task that crosses approach/avoidance conditioned responses to appetitive/aversive unconditioned stimuli. Conflict between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli occurred on the approach-aversive and avoid-appetitive trials. Results confirm the predictions and provide support for the revised RST.

Since 1964, the relationship between personality and criminal behaviour has been extensively studied. However, studies, which have examined the Eysenckian dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism have produced mixed results. Gray's [Gray, J. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion–extroversion. Behavior Research and Therapy, 8, 249–266] Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory provides an alternative conceptualisation of the role of personality in criminal behaviour, and has generally produced more consistent findings. This study aimed to examine the relationship between reinforcement sensitivity and delinquent behaviour in a sample of 259 adolescents, and to examine the role that coping strategies play in this relationship. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that use of problem solving mediated the relationship between reward sensitivity and delinquent behaviour, while use of non-productive coping strategies moderated the relationship between BAS drive and delinquency. Consequently, it was suggested that coping skills training could be an effective early intervention for delinquent behaviour.

Individual differences in behavioral dispositions, values and motivation systems have been investigated in relative isolation from each other. We investigated the network structure of indicators derived from Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, Five-Factor Model and Basic individual values in a large sample of young adults (N = 749). The network showed evidence of a small world structure indicating a small number of densely connected networks is sufficient to describe human personality. We identified a number of nodes (indicators) that were central within the network. An Exploratory Graph Analysis suggested ten distinct network clusters, which varied in terms of behavioral approach versus inhibition; exploration vs constraint and self/ego vs social orientation, demonstrating the complexity of individual differences from a motivational-situational perspective. A more complex dimensional exploration of personality networks allows for a more nuanced understanding of how personality systems can be motivated within specific environments and towards different internal or external targets.

Individuals with highly active behavioral activation (BAS) motivational systems are at increased risk for disordered eating behaviors (Bijttebier et al. 2009). The current study examined gender differences in the relationship between motivational tendencies and disordered eating behaviors by administering self-report measures to a sample of 352 college undergraduate students from a Midwestern university in the United States. The goal-driven facet of BAS (BAS-Drive) was a stronger predictor of muscle development behaviors for men than for women. In addition, higher levels of BAS-Drive were associated with greater dietary restraint among males, but not among females. Findings from the current study suggest that gender plays an important role in the relationship between BAS-Drive tendencies and eating disorder behaviors.

Previous studies have linked perfectionism to differences in reinforcement sensitivity, but findings have been mixed. The present study explored the relationships between three forms of perfectionism (self-oriented, other-oriented, socially prescribed) and components of the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality in relation to the experience of positive and negative affect. In a sample of 388 university students, we found consistent evidence of significant bivariate and semipartial correlations controlling for the overlap between the three forms of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with the behavioral approach system (BAS), the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS); other-oriented perfectionism showed a negative relationship with the BIS (and was unrelated to the FFFS); and socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive relationships with the BIS and BAS impulsiveness, and a negative relationship with BAS goal-drive persistence (and was unrelated to the FFFS). Furthermore, mediation analyses indicated that the reinforcement sensitivity components (BIS and BAS, but not FFFS) explained differences in how the three forms of perfectionism predicted recent positive and negative affect. These findings open up new empirical avenues in suggesting that fundamental emotion-motivational systems play a key role in the relationship of perfectionism and affective experiences.

Engineers are often faced with construction of pavement structures over soft and highly compressible subgrade. Such conditions render the structures unable to withstand the required design loads and susceptible to high settlements with associated excessive distress, leading to pavement damage. Because using imported quality fill to improve the load-bearing capacity of the subgrade has limited benefits, an alternative construction approach is needed to ensure the required strength of the soil structure is reached. The use of geosynthetics in soil to improve bearing capacity and stability offers a better alternative to imported fill. This research was conducted to determine the degree of improvement of the load-bearing capacity and reduction in settlement as a result of the geosynthetic reinforcement of soft clay overlain by granular material. Compression tests on the unreinforced clay subgrade and geosynthetic-reinforced two-layered soil composite were conducted at bench-scale using a Universal Compression Machine at the University of Cape Town Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory. The geosynthetic products used to reinforce the soil structure in this study included geogrids and geotextiles. The reinforcement layer was placed alternatively within the layer of granular material and at the interface of the soil and a range of fill thicknesses and depths of placement were tested to determine their influence on mobilized strength. The use of these composites could potentially lead to reduced construction costs as a result of less aggregate material used, an extension in the design life of the pavement structure and, consequently, a reduced necessity for maintenance work.

In an attempt to advance the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), this study investigates the implications of RST to test anxiety. 217 college-level students participated in the study. The Behavior Inhibition System (BIS) and the Fight, Flight, Freeze System (FFFS) of the RST correlate with test anxiety, but not the Behavior Activation System (BAS). Using multiple regression, findings reveal that FFFS, specifically freeze, best predicts test anxiety, worry, and emotionality. Moreover, fight also predicts worry, while flight predicts emotionality. These results generally support the current conceptualization of the revised RST.

Introduction: There were many conflicts about involvement of Internet addiction in fifth version of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders (DSM-V). As personality characteristics are one of the risk factors of risky behaviors, this study have investigated the role of neurobehavioral factors of personality in Internet addiction.

Materials & Methods: This study is a correlational study. For this procedure, among all students of Kharazmi university of Tehran, 359 participants (196 male and 163 female) were selected through Multi-stage cluster sampling. They answered Jackson-5 scale and Young’s Internet addiction test. Data were analyzed by stepwise regression method by SPSS.22.

Findings: Analyzing data showed that Freeze and Fight of Fight/Flight/Freeze system could predict Internet addiction (P<0.001, R= 0.40, R2= 0.16). After analyzing genders separately, Freeze, Flight, and Fight could predict addiction in males (P<0.001, R= 0.55, R2= 0.30), but only Fight and Freeze predicted addiction in females (P<0.001, R= 0.26, R2= 0.07).

Discussion & Conclusions: From all brain-behavioral systems, only fear and sensitivity to threatening stimuli affects Internet addiction. This imply that Internet addiction is somehow different from other risky behaviors; therefore, to prevent and treat Internet addiction, sensitivity to punishment and fear should be considered more important than sensitivity to reward.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between temperament, ruminative thought style and social anxiety using latent variable modeling. Before examining the integrated model that specifies the relations between the constructs, relevant measurement issues were examined. The study was conducted on a heterogeneous sample from the general population that included 1,029 participants (62.1% female) aged 19 to 79. The findings show that the Behavioural Inhibition System is the most important vulnerability factor for the development of social anxiety, and it has both a direct effect and an indirect one through the ruminative thought style. Also, Freeze has an additional contribution to the increased experience of social anxiety. The Behavioural Approach System has complex effects on social anxiety-with a direct protective effect, and indirectly-with a facilitation of the ruminative thought style. Thus, BAS can also act as a risk factor. The findings support the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and provide a basis for the extension of the Kimbrel's Mediation Model of Social Anxiety.

Abstract This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour.