- Operations Research, Systems Thinking, Problem Structuring Methods, Operational Research, Professionalism, Communities of practice, and 44 moreChange Management, Teaching, Research Practice, Karl Popper, Pragmatism, The mangle, American Pragmatism, Legal Pragmatism, History of Philosophy of Science (Especially Pragmatism and Logical Empiricism), Epistemology, Pragmatism and Practice, Critical Rationalism, Practice-led research, Practice-Based Research, Practice Based Research, Practice as Research, Practitioner Inquiry, Praxis, Soft systems practice, Soft Systems Methodology, Cognitive Mapping, Strategic Change Approach, IS/IT Strategy, IS stratey, Is Strategy, Mangle of Practice, Popper, Karl Popper theories, Karl Raimund Popper, Critical Rationalism In Society, Practice theory, Marxism, Karl Marx, Talcott Parsons, Actor Network Theory, Actor-Network-Theory, Critical Systems Thinking, SSK, History of Ideas, Informal Logic, History of Informal Logic, Defeasible Logic, Defeasible Deontic Logic, Peirce, and Case analysis sampleedit
- 1964-1967 BSc Civil Engineering, London External Degree at the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham. 1967-19... more1964-1967 BSc Civil Engineering, London External Degree at the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham.
1967-1971 Consultant Engineer, Freeman Fox and Partners.
1971 John Mowlem Contractors
1972 MSc in Management Science and Operational Research, Warwick University
1973 Factory Manager, Marley Buildings
1974-1978 Operational Research Scientist, Operational Research Executive, UK National Coal Board
1978-1987 Deputy Director of the Central Planning Unit of the British Coal Corporation (previously the National Coal Board, UK)
1987-1991 Principal Consultant, PA Consulting Group
1991- 2001 Professor of Management and Associate Dean of Executive Education, Warwick Business School, Warwick Universityedit
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Research Interests: Engineering, Knowledge Management, Operations Research, Competence in Practice, Cultural Competence, and 15 moreCore Competence, Problem Structuring Methods, Soft Systems Methodology, Operational Research, Competence, Social Competence, Process management, Psychological Intervention, Soft Operational Research, Competencias, Key Competences, PSM, Competences, Structuring, and Software Deployment
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Research Interests:
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and... more
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and social work, and education. Each area is examined for evidence that the ideas of pragmatism have been taken up academically in the research literature. The literature is then examined for evidence that the academic work has permeated the actions of professionals. Each of the chosen practice areas is clearly dominated by pragmatic, instrumental activities. Despite this and a good deal of discussion in the academic literature, there is only limited evidence that professionals, in so far as they exhibit pragmatist behaviour, make any explicit connection with the philosophy of pragmatism. The early pragmatists argued that pragmatic behaviour arises from man's need to solve problems quickly, using his limited understanding of the situation, in order to survive and flourish: no philosophy had been required to guide such behaviour. Today, philosophy is often consulted on questions of ethical and moral dilemmas in most practice areas, but the philosophy of pragmatism may well not feature in such discussions. Experience in operational research (OR) practice is reviewed and compared with that in the five other practice areas. From the reviews, a list of the habits and orientations is synthesized, habits and orientations that could be taken to characterize pragmatism in professional practice. K E Y W O R D S applied philosophy, pragmatism, pragmatism in OR, process of OR, professional practice 1 | INTRODUCTION The aim of the paper is to explore how the philosophy of American pragmatism has been utilized in professional practice and how this can be crystalized into guidance for future professional practice in general and operational research (OR) in particular. The approach taken has been (i) to describe the philosophical approach of the originators of pragmatism in terms of logic, method and social context; (ii) to search the literature of selected professions for evidence of pragmatism being utilized or exhibited in their practice; (iii) to examine how OR has engaged with pragmatism and how it is reflected in its activities; and (iv) to crystalize the evidence of pragmatic behaviour in professional practice into a list of habits and behaviours reflecting a pragmatic orientation, in other
Research Interests: Sociology, Philosophy of Technology, Pragmatism, Pragmatics, Operations Research, and 12 morePhilosophy of Education, Philosophy Of Law, Philosophy of Computer Science, Philosophy of Engineering, Multidisciplinary, Operational Research, Philosophy of Nursing, Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence, Professional Practice, Applied Pragmatic Theory, Philosophy of Law, and Philosophy of Accounting
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Research Interests: Sociology, Social Theory, Computer Science, Epistemology, Practice theory, and 10 moreOperations Research, Functionalism, Social Systems Theory, Problem Structuring Methods, Sociological Theory, Structural Functionalism, Operational Research, Talcott Parsons, Mathematical Sciences, and Classical and Contemporary Social Theory
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Abstract OR consultants aspire to provide their clients with good reasoning. OR methods are designed to support the process of developing good reasoning. Logic examines what counts as good reasoning. The aim of the paper is to investigate... more
Abstract OR consultants aspire to provide their clients with good reasoning. OR methods are designed to support the process of developing good reasoning. Logic examines what counts as good reasoning. The aim of the paper is to investigate the foundations of OR in terms of the relationship between logic and the activities and methods of OR inquiry. The approach taken is: (i) to identify the types of activities that OR practitioners typically engage in during an OR project; (ii) to introduce some of the main areas of logical reasoning, particularly those relevant to OR practice such as deductive, inductive, modal, and informal logic; and (iii) to bring these two lines of thinking together in order to examine the relationship between logic and OR practice and methods. The key finding is that although the core activities and methods of gathering data, analysing it and developing models are logically well founded, the management of uncertainty in the line of argument could benefit from the insights and methods provided by logic. From this analysis, some practical suggestions are made to improve the process of OR, the development of the line of argument, and the honing of advice given to clients.
Research Interests: Modal Logic, Computer Science, Logic, Decision Making, Computational Logic, and 15 moreOperations Research, Fuzzy Logic, Deductive reasoning, Mathematical Logic, Operational Research, Practical Philosophy, MSc and Phd Researcher, Management Consulting, Mathematical Sciences, OPerations research and statistics, Computational Science and Engineering, PhD Student, Non monotonic Inference, Logical Argumentation, and Defeasible Logic
Research Interests: Practice theory, Operations Research, Case Study Research, Case Studies, Modeling and Simulation, and 14 morePhd Writing, Sociology of Practice of Science and the Professions, Social Practice, Operational Reaserch and optimization, Operational Research, Philosophy of Praxis, Mathematical Sciences, OPerations research and statistics, Case Study, Philosophy of Scientific Practice, Business case study, Case analysis sample, Mangle of Practice, and Behavioural Operational Research
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Research Interests:
Research Interests: Business and Outsourcing
ABSTRACT
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Research Interests: Information Systems, Marketing, Computer Science, Information Technology, Project Management, and 12 moreOperations Research, Production, Logistics, Management Science, Forecasting, Scheduling, Operational Research, Investment, Mathematical Sciences, Reliability, Location, and Communications Technology
ABSTRACT Journal of the Operational Research Society (2002) 53, 1390–1392. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2601448
Research Interests: Information Systems, Marketing, Computer Science, Information Technology, Economics, and 13 moreProject Management, Operations Research, Production, Logistics, Management Science, Forecasting, Scheduling, Operational Research, Investment, Mathematical Sciences, Reliability, Location, and Communications Technology
ABSTRACT
Research Interests: Information Systems, Engineering, Sociology, Computer Science, Social Sciences, and 11 moreOperations Research, Systems Engineering, Case Study Research, Case Studies, Sociology Of Scientific Knowledge, Operations research and Optimization, Operational Research, Mathematical Sciences, SSK, Management Cases, and Research Practice
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This paper results from a collaboration between two academics, one a social psychologist who has explored creative work in engineering product design, the other engaged in the application of 'soft'... more
This paper results from a collaboration between two academics, one a social psychologist who has explored creative work in engineering product design, the other engaged in the application of 'soft' methods in OR, but with a background in engineering. Much of the new thinking in ...
Research Interests: Information Systems, Marketing, Computer Science, Information Technology, Epistemology, and 15 moreSocial Sciences, Creativity, Project Management, Operations Research, Production, Logistics, Management Science, Forecasting, Scheduling, Operational Research, Investment, Mathematical Sciences, Reliability, Location, and Communications Technology
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Research Interests:
Research Interests: Computer Science, Decision Making, Practice theory, Operations Research, Systems Thinking, and 11 moreDeductive reasoning, Philosophical Logic, Practical Reasoning, Karl Popper, Practical Rationality, Practical Reasons and Rationality, Operational Research, Practical Philosophy, Managerial Decision Making, Mathematical Sciences, and Critical Rationalism
ABSTRACT
Research Interests: Information Systems, Marketing, Computer Science, Information Technology, Project Management, and 15 moreOperations Research, Production, Logistics, Management Science, Forecasting, Scheduling, Operational Research, Investment, Mathematical Sciences, Reliability, Product Development, World Wide Web, Location, Communications Technology, and Internet
ABSTRACT
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ABSTRACT
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Critical rationalism for practice (CRforP) attempts to provide a framework for practice by extending Karl Popper's epistemology of science (critical rationalism). In this paper, it is argued that CRforP can be considered within the debate... more
Critical rationalism for practice (CRforP) attempts to provide a framework for practice by extending Karl Popper's epistemology of science (critical rationalism). In this paper, it is argued that CRforP can be considered within the debate about the nature of critical systems thinking (CST). In the paper, the bare bones of CRforP are fleshed out in order to consider issues that have been central to the CST debate, such as competence and expertise, moral choice and understanding of social context. CRforP brings a new perspective to the debate; the intent is that it should be applied in practice alongside already established CST approaches. To do so requires CST to be understood as an intellectual domain rather than a developed theory associated with one particular framework, metamethodology or metatheory. This conception of CST allows CRforP to be compared with existing approaches with a view to their use in practice.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and... more
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and social work, and education. Each area is examined for evidence that the
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Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Most large organisations have developed one or more IS strategies in the past decade. A great variety of approaches have been tried. The paper addresses the choice of approach at the outset of an IS strategy development exercise. Based on... more
Most large organisations have developed one or more IS strategies in the past decade. A great variety of approaches have been tried. The paper addresses the choice of approach at the outset of an IS strategy development exercise. Based on his experience of developing strategies, the author suggests there are two key choices: whether the strategy development process should be conventional or participative and whether the method should be data or decision orientated. The contextual factors that should be considered when making these choices are identified and five stage learning model for IS strategy development is proposed.
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Research Interests:
Note. This article is a response to a Main Article published in this journal: Thurner, T. W., & Proskuryakova, L. (2013). Collaborative research in energy efficiency and renewable energy: Evidence from 5 years of US-Russian research... more
Note. This article is a response to a Main Article published in this journal: Thurner, T. W., & Proskuryakova, L. (2013). Collaborative research in energy efficiency and renewable energy: Evidence from 5 years of US-Russian research cooperation. Journal of Research Practice, 9(1), Article M4. I read with interest the article by Thurner and Proskuryakova (2013). It is striking that the current global energy problem they describe (drawing on OECD/IEA analysis) is almost exactly the same as that faced in the 1970s and 1980s when I was involved in such issues. The growing need for energy, the deteriorating fossil supplies, the environmental threats and the need for sustainability were all identified then. As now, the lack of technical progress was lamented and the need to develop sustainable alternatives was deemed urgent. Thurner and Proskuryakova have analyzed recent US-Russian cooperation on energy research in terms of publications and patents, shedding some light on the collaboratio...
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This article is a response to a Viewpoint & Discussion article published in this journal: Ulrich, W., & Dash, D. P. (2013). Research skills for the future: Summary and critique of a comparative study in eight countries. Journal of... more
This article is a response to a Viewpoint & Discussion article published in this journal: Ulrich, W., & Dash, D. P. (2013). Research skills for the future: Summary and critique of a comparative study in eight countries. Journal of Research Practice, 9(1), Article V1.
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This article is a response to a Main Article published in this journal: Thurner, T. W., & Proskuryakova, L. (2013). Collaborative research in energy efficiency and renewable energy: Evidence from 5 years of US-Russian research... more
This article is a response to a Main Article published in this journal: Thurner, T. W., & Proskuryakova, L. (2013). Collaborative research in energy efficiency and renewable energy: Evidence from 5 years of US-Russian research cooperation. Journal of Research Practice, 9(1), Article M4.
Research Interests:
Reason, an Ignis fatuus, in the Mind, Which leaving light of Nature, sense behind; Pathless and dang’rous wandering ways it takes, Through errors Fenny-Boggs, and Thorny Brakes; Whilst the misguided follower, climbs with pain, Mountains... more
Reason, an Ignis fatuus, in the Mind, Which leaving light of Nature, sense behind; Pathless and dang’rous wandering ways it takes, Through errors Fenny-Boggs, and Thorny Brakes; Whilst the misguided follower, climbs with pain, Mountains of Whimsey, heap’d in his own Brain; Stumbling from thought to thought, falls headlong down, Into doubts boundless Sea, where like to drown, Books bear him up awhile, and make him try, To swim with Bladders of Philosophy . . .
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Research Interests: Operations Research, Power Quality, Energy, Power System, Problem Structuring Methods, and 15 moreSoft Systems Methodology, Business Process Redesigning, Benchmarking, Multidisciplinary, Power Generation, IS, Soft Operational Research, Organisational Structure, Computer System, Is Strategy, Electricity Generation, Design and Implementation, Power Quality Signal Analysis Using DSP, Electric Power Industry, and Information System
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Behavioural research into the practice of OR needs to be grounded. Case studies written by practitioners can potentially address this need but currently most do not. The paper explores a way of describing OR projects that places the... more
Behavioural research into the practice of OR needs to be grounded. Case studies written by practitioners can potentially address this need but currently most do not. The paper explores a way of describing OR projects that places the emphasis on the ‘actors’ who provide the motivating force and the consequences of their actions. The ‘mangle’ perspective suggested in this paper focuses on the dynamic intertwining of people, technology and concepts, providing the basis for an insightful narrative describing the reality of the project in terms of the planned approach, the problems met, and the outcomes. Two examples are given, one of a conventional model building exercise, the second of a ‘soft OR’ intervention, both describing projects conducted by practitioners for commercial purposes. It is concluded that, by using the mangle perspective, the OR case writer can winnow the wheat from the chaff in order to write a more informative narrative, but the hope that the resulting case studies...
Research Interests: Information Systems, Operations Research, Actor Network Theory, Case Study Research, Case Studies, and 15 moreModeling and Simulation, Operational Reaserch and optimization, Operational Research, Management Consulting, Organisational Behaviour, Mathematical Sciences, OPerations research and statistics, Case Study, Energy Modelling, Management Consultancy, Business case study, Case analysis sample, Mangle of Practice, Infromation Systems Strategy, and Behavioural Operational Research
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and... more
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the American philosophy of pragmatism. The paper reviews the application of pragmatisms in five selected areas of professional practice: technology, law, politics, medical and social work, and education. Each area is examined for evidence that the ideas of pragmatism have been taken up academically in the research literature. The literature is then examined for evidence that the academic work has permeated the actions of professionals. Each of the chosen practice areas is clearly dominated by pragmatic, instrumental activities. Despite this and a good deal of discussion in the academic literature, there is only limited evidence that professionals, in so far as they exhibit pragmatist behaviour, make any explicit connection with the philosophy of pragmatism. The early pragmatists argued that pragmatic behaviour arises from man's need to solve problems quickly, using his limited understanding of the situation, in order to survive and flourish: no philosophy had been required to guide such behaviour. Today, philosophy is often consulted on questions of ethical and moral dilemmas in most practice areas, but the philosophy of pragmatism may well not feature in such discussions. Experience in operational research (OR) practice is reviewed and compared with that in the five other practice areas. From the reviews, a list of the habits and orientations is synthesized, habits and orientations that could be taken to characterize pragmatism in professional practice. K E Y W O R D S applied philosophy, pragmatism, pragmatism in OR, process of OR, professional practice 1 | INTRODUCTION The aim of the paper is to explore how the philosophy of American pragmatism has been utilized in professional practice and how this can be crystalized into guidance for future professional practice in general and operational research (OR) in particular. The approach taken has been (i) to describe the philosophical approach of the originators of pragmatism in terms of logic, method and social context; (ii) to search the literature of selected professions for evidence of pragmatism being utilized or exhibited in their practice; (iii) to examine how OR has engaged with pragmatism and how it is reflected in its activities; and (iv) to crystalize the evidence of pragmatic behaviour in professional practice into a list of habits and behaviours reflecting a pragmatic orientation, in other
Research Interests: Philosophy of Technology, Pragmatism, Operations Research, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy Of Law, and 10 morePhilosophy of Computer Science, Philosophy of Engineering, Operational Research, Philosophy of Nursing, American Pragmatism, Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence, Classical American Pragmatism, Professional Practice, Applied Pragmatic Theory, and Philosophy of Accounting
The originators of pragmatism argued that pragmatism is a way of thinking rather than a set of axioms, rules and methods. They explain how theory and logic derive from the thinking processes of everyday life, at the centre of which are... more
The originators of pragmatism argued that pragmatism is a way of thinking rather than a set of axioms, rules and methods. They explain how theory and logic derive from the thinking processes of everyday life, at the centre of which are inquiries. Inquiries enable us to get our thoughts clear before we take action; they are the life blood of every science and are, according to the pragmatists, constantly engaged in every craft, profession and art. During inquiries habits are formed, confirmed, adjusted or discarded as their operational effects are experienced. The paper, following the approach of the originators, describes the development of a method and logic of OR arrived at by articulating some of the activities I regularly engaged in during my experience of practicing OR. The result is a draft of my pragmatic method of OR. It is claimed that the resulting pragmatic method and logic in effect operationalises pragmatism in an OR context. It is concluded that there is merit in practitioners similarly deriving, and reflecting on, their pragmatic method of OR. The implications for practice , teaching, and research are discussed. Finally, the possibility of developing a founda-tional view of the practice of OR is briefly considered.
Research Interests: Philosophy, Philosophy of Science, Pragmatism, Operations Management, Operations Research, and 10 morePhilosophy Of Law, John Dewey, Philosophy of Computer Science, Pragmatism (Philosophy), Operational Research, American Pragmatism, MSc and Phd Researcher, Philosophy of Economics and Accounting, Management Consultancy, and Professional Practice
How will AI affect OR practice? In OR we aspire to be logical, and therefore our behaviours should be relatively easy to replicate in logic, the basis of computer systems. We also pride ourselves on our attention to context, our project... more
How will AI affect OR practice? In OR we aspire to be logical, and therefore our behaviours should be relatively easy to replicate in logic, the basis of computer systems. We also pride ourselves on our attention to context, our project management skills, and our pragmatic approach. To think about the issues, we can turn to our experience of practicing OR and to the insights of mathematics, philosophy, sociology, and economics. Mathematicians and philosophers have widened the scope of logic to cover many aspects of decision-making; sociologists have conducted research into the social context and consequences of new technologies and economists have analysed their rates of penetration. Some OR jobs will be destroyed and others will be created giving rise to new, more varied career paths. The paper concludes that the centre of gravity of OR practice will move from analysis to those aspects difficult to computerise, the 'residuals'. When AI does finally displace OR practitioners, it may come in the form of 'AI strong enough for OR', strong enough to satisfy potential OR clients in terms of efficacy and cost. The OR community needs to get involved more deeply in AI; it has the relevant expertise to do so. ARTICLE HISTORY
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During the first half of the 20th century Talcott Parsons developed his social theory of functionalism. His synthesis of the insights of Durkheim, Webber, and others provided the corner stone for his "grand theory." Parsons' functionalism... more
During the first half of the 20th century Talcott Parsons developed his social theory of functionalism. His synthesis of the insights of Durkheim, Webber, and others provided the corner stone for his "grand theory." Parsons' functionalism takes the form of a schema or descriptive framework of society, its component parts, and the interactions between them. Post-WW2 the new framework was widely welcomed by the growing army of researchers conducting empirical research into social phenomena, but it was fiercely criticised by social theorists. As a consequence, new variants of functionalism were developed, existing programmes were reexamined , and new schools evolved. This article first describes func-tionalism and examines some current schools of social theory in relation to it. Then it examines the use made of social theory by OR researchers to develop an understanding of the context of OR interventions, underpin the development of OR methods, provide methods and frameworks for empirical research, inform and motivate critique of OR practice and research, and contribute to sociology. This article demonstrates that functionalism offers a point of entry for OR researchers intent on gaining an understanding of social theories, a notoriously difficult subject on which all sociological theorising is founded.
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OR consultants aspire to provide their clients with good reasoning. OR methods are designed to support the process of developing good reasoning. Logic examines what counts as good reasoning. The aim of the paper is to investigate the... more
OR consultants aspire to provide their clients with good reasoning. OR methods are designed to support the process of developing good reasoning. Logic examines what counts as good reasoning. The aim of the paper is to investigate the foundations of OR in terms of the relationship between logic and the activities and methods of OR inquiry. The approach taken is: (i) to identify the types of activities that OR practitioners typically engage in during an OR project; (ii) to introduce some of the main areas of logical reasoning, particularly those relevant to OR practice such as deductive, inductive, modal, and informal logic; and (iii) to bring these two lines of thinking together in order to examine the relationship between logic and OR practice and methods. The key finding is that although the core activities and methods of gathering data, analysing it and developing models are logically well founded, the management of uncertainty in the line of argument could benefit from the insights and methods provided by logic. From this analysis, some practical suggestions are made to improve the process of OR, the development of the line of argument, and the honing of advice given to clients.
Research Interests: Modal Logic, Computer Science, Logic, Decision Making, Practice theory, and 24 moreComputational Logic, Defeasible Reasoning (Computer Science), Operations Research, Fuzzy Logic, Systems Thinking, Deductive reasoning, Practical Reasoning, Mathematical Logic, Practical Rationality, Non-monotonic Logic, Operational Research, Practical Philosophy, Rationality, MSc and Phd Researcher, Management Consulting, OPerations research and statistics, Computational Science and Engineering, Non-Monotonic Reasoning, Reflective thinking for complex choice-making and decision-making, Professional Practice, PhD Student, Non monotonic Inference, Logical Argumentation, and Defeasible Logic
Historically OR has conceived of itself as a professional practice giving rational, objective advice rooted in the ethos of science. However, the claim of science to rationality and objectivity has wilted under the onslaught of relativist... more
Historically OR has conceived of itself as a professional practice giving rational, objective advice rooted in the ethos of science. However, the claim of science to rationality and objectivity has wilted under the onslaught of relativist and post-modern attack. One proposed philosophy of science seeks to avoid such problems by adopting a strictly objectivist approach. Critical rationalism (CR), the philosophy originated by Karl Popper, attempts to eliminate all inductive, justificatory and merely subjective claims by the ruthless application of deductive logic. The philosophical development of the CR approach to practice is currently a work-in-progress; however, it is an approach that should on the face of it find favour with OR, particularly for those who want to claim that OR is logically rational. The paper, drawing on the work of David Miller, explores how such an approach can be applied in the OR context. It concludes that although as CR suggests it may be possible to drive out inductive and justificatory claims in OR, subjective choice is an essential element of managerial decision-making and cannot be ignored or assumed away. The paper identifies some of the challenges that confront philosophers of practice if OR is to take the insights of CR to heart, suggests some possible responses, and identifies areas for future research.
Research Interests: Decision Making, Practice theory, Operations Research, Systems Thinking, Deductive reasoning, and 11 morePhilosophical Logic, Practical Reasoning, Karl Popper, Practical Rationality, Practical Reasons and Rationality, Operational Research, Practical Philosophy, MSc and Phd Researcher, Managerial Decision Making, Reflective thinking for complex choice-making and decision-making, and Critical Rationalism
How will AI affect OR practice? In OR we aspire to be logical, and therefore our behaviours should be relatively easy to replicate in logic, the basis of computer systems. We also pride ourselves on our attention to context, our project... more
How will AI affect OR practice? In OR we aspire to be logical, and therefore our behaviours should be relatively easy to replicate in logic, the basis of computer systems. We also pride ourselves on our attention to context, our project management skills, and our pragmatic approach. To think about the issues, we can turn to our experience of practicing OR and to the insights of mathematics, philosophy, sociology, and economics. Mathematicians and philosophers have widened the scope of logic to cover many aspects of decision-making; sociologists have conducted research into the social context and consequences of new technologies and economists have analysed their rates of penetration. Some OR jobs will be destroyed and others will be created giving rise to new, more varied career paths. The paper concludes that the centre of gravity of OR practice will move from analysis to those aspects difficult to computerize, the 'residuals'. When AI does finally displace OR practitioners, it may come in the form of 'AI strong enough for OR', strong enough to satisfy potential OR clients in terms of efficacy and cost. The OR community needs to get involved more deeply in AI; it has the relevant expertise to do so.
