Intentionality and God’s mind: Stumpf on Spinoza
Riccardo Martinelli, Trieste
Stumpf’s Spinozastudien
After the fortunate discovery of the Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being
around the middle of the nineteenth century, philosophers became increasingly
interested in Spinoza. This process, marking the beginning of a Spinoza-scholarship in
the modern sense, is particularly impressive in the German area. One should not forget
that the famous Spinozismusstreit, arising from Jacobi’s unveiling of Lessing’s
Spinozistic pantheism and from Mendelssohn’s consequent reaction, had taken place
only about a century before. Later, contrasting Hegel’s interpretation of Spinoza, many
German scholars abandoned any religiously oriented polemics concerning the great
Dutch philosopher and eventually faced the sober historical problem of granting him a
position within the mainstream of modern philosophy, among thinkers like Descartes,
Leibniz and Kant.
Carl Stumpf’s Spinozastudien, published in the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences in 1919, can be understood against the background of this debate. Although
he had devoted himself to wholly different questions during his career, Stumpf
competently contributed to two capital questions: parallelism and the infinity of
attributes. My present aim, however, is neither a discussion of the adequacy nor of the
influence of Stumpf’s exegesis1. Rather, Spinozastudien are helpful in understanding
Stumpf’s own philosophical position. They show that he adopted an original
interpretation of intentionality, clearly and consciously different from the well-known
theses of both Brentano and Husserl on this topic.
In his Autobiography, published in 1924, Stumpf explains his interest in Spinoza’s
thought in the following terms:
“[...] after much experimental work, I wrote a treatise on Spinoza, not because of any special
sympathy with his philosophizing, but rather because I thought that I might say something new
concerning one of his main points, the parallelism of the attributes. I believe I have
demonstrated that his theory, both in form and in thought, is fundamentally different from
modern psychophysical parallelism and is only an outflow of the old Aristotelian-scholastic
theory of the parallelism of acts and contents of consciousness”. (Stumpf 1930, 415)
Stumpf avoids the usual interpretation of Spinoza’s parallelism as a kind of
psychophysical parallelism ante litteram. His alternative interpretation is centered on
the Aristotelian-scholastic tradition of the correspondence between acts and contents,
i.e. the theory of intentionality. Spinoza, Stumpf shows, is indebted to this tradition. To
illustrate this heritage, Stumpf first provides a detailed historical account of the history
of intentionality from Aristotle to the late Scholastic, thus integrating the general
indications given by Brentano in his Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt.
Stumpf’s Autobiography illustrates then another important question:
“The second study discusses the infinite number of the attributes and endeavors to elucidate
the terse suggestions of the philosopher and to carry them out, hypothetically at least, on the
basis of the theory of parallelism; and to explain how the author, in spite of the vast number of
1
To some extent, I did this in Martinelli 2001.
objective attributes which constitute substance, could maintain their unity”. (Stumpf 1930,
415-416)
Because of Spinoza’s peculiar radicalism in applying this philosophical heritage, his
theory of infinite attributes implies a hypothetical extension, disclosing some surprising
insights in metaphysics. Actually, Stumpf’s plans were even more ambitious:
“A third study was to discuss the «geometrical method», and find for the first propositions of the
Ethics, and their proofs which Leibnitz justly condemned, the unconscious assumptions which
made them seem formally necessary to Spinoza himself. Criticism so far has approached too
much from the outside. The tasks of interpreting most clearly Spinoza's extreme conceptualistic
realism and at the same time his dependence on scholasticism we recommend to those who
delight in logical studies”. (Stumpf 1930, 416)
Unfortunately he did not accomplish this task. Nevertheless, the two published studies
provide important explanations concerning some of Stumpf’s most important
philosophical opinions. This helps by contrasting some commonplace views about his
work. It has been suggested that Stumpf can be scarcely considered a philosopher
(Fano 1992, 9; Münch 2002, 14); that he progressively abandoned philosophy and
switched to experimental psychology (Sprung 2006, 15 f.); or that, inasmuch as he still
pursued philosophical interests, he did it only in a quite orthodox Brentanian vein
(Schuhmann 2001, 71). An analysis of his Spinozastudien, published no earlier than
1919, shows that such theses are either untenable or at least partial. Stumpf was a fine
and original philosopher. He always showed a deep interest in philosophy, constantly
interwoven with his psychological and experimental work; moreover, his own
contribution to philosophy is no more dependent on Brentano than that of many other
philosophers of the so-called Brentanoschule.
In the following sections I will first consider Stumpf’s interpretation of Spinoza’s
parallelism, then his hypothesis concerning the theory of infinite attributes, and finally
some aspects of Stumpf’s idea of intentionality and its difference from those of
Brentano and Husserl.
Immanent parallelism as intentionality
In the first study, entitled Der Parallelismus der Modi innerhalb der Attribute
Ausdehnung und Denken, Stumpf shows that Spinoza’s parallelism has no kinship with
psychophysical parallelism. According to this psychological doctrine, the physical and
the mental correspond to each other because they represent nothing else than different
expressions of the one and same reality. Although with different accents, a similar view
was defended by men like Friedrich Albert Lange, Gustav Theodor Fechner, Ewald
Hering, Wilhelm Wundt, Ernst Mach2 . In fact, if compared with Descartes’ dualism,
Spinoza's monist doctrine of substance could appear at first glance essentially
consistent with this hypothesis.
Let us now consider Stumpf’s arguments against this interpretation. Spinoza's
parallelism is formulated in the famous seventh proposition of the second part of the
Ethics:
2
As I shall discuss later, Stumpf strongly opposed this view. In a certain sense, his first study
consists in the attempt of freeing Spinoza from the suspect of having defended such an
untenable and vulgar doctrine.
!2
“The order and the connection of ideas is the same as the order and the connection of things”.
(Spinoza 2000, 117)3
In the relative demonstration, Spinoza refers to the axiom I.A4: “Knowledge of an effect
depends on the knowledge of the cause, and involves it” (Spinoza 2000, 76)4. In
II.Dem7 he explains: “For the idea of each thing that is caused depends on the
knowledge of the cause of which it is an effect” (Spinoza 2000, 117).
Stumpf insists on the mere analytic nature of this demonstration, which is a direct
consequence of Spinoza’s rationalist conception of causality. He notes that “as in
similar cases of very short demonstrations, resolving in a mere reference to some
previous passage”, the beloved QED (Quod Erat Demonstrandum) is omitted (not
forgotten, on Stumpf’s account) by Spinoza at the end of the demonstration (Stumpf
1919, 4).
Since the demonstration adds very little, if anything, to the Axiom upon which it relies,
any interpretation must essentially refer to I.A4. In Stumpf’s analysis, Spinoza’s
assertion of parallelism in II.P7 has a positive and a negative meaning, respectively
corresponding to the first (“Knowledge of an effect depends on the knowledge of the
cause”) and the second (“and involves it”) part of I.A4.
Stumpf begins with the negative aspect. From this point of view, he notes, parallelism
implies the impossibility of mutual interaction between two attributes. Properly
speaking, this already followed from Proposition I.P3: “Of things which have nothing in
common with one another, one cannot be the cause of another” (Spinoza 2000, 77),
which is, again, demonstrated by Spinoza by means of I.A55 and of the causal axiom
I.A4, with particular regard for the end clause “et eandem involvit”. For this reason, the
role of Proposition I.P3 is carefully analyzed by Stumpf.
As Stumpf points out, Spinoza does not refer to attributes or substances, but quite
generally to “things”, res: the same term used in the proposition II.P7 under discussion.
Stumpf devotes several pages to the analysis of the meaning of res. One can
summarize his results as follows: by means of res Spinoza does not think of a specific
“individual corporeal things”, but to “something” in the broadest possible sense (Stumpf
1919, 5). As a matter of fact, he observes, the term res in Proposition I.P3 applies to
substance (I.P6)6, attributes (I.P10) 7 and modes (II.Dem6)8.
“Ordo et connexio Idearum idem est ac ordo et connexio rerum” (II.P7). I refer to Spinoza’s
Ethica using the following abbreviations: II. = second part, P = proposition (Def = Definition, A =
Axiom, D = Demonstration, S = Scholium) number 7.
3
4
Effectus cognitio a cognitione causae dependet, et eandem involvit (I.A4).
5
“Those things which have nothing in common with each other cannot be understood through
each other, or, the conception of the one does not involve the conception of the other”. (Spinoza
2000, 76). “Quae nihil commune cum se invicem habent, etiam per se invicem intelligi non
possunt, sive conceptus unius alterius conceptum non involvit” (IA5).
6
"One substance cannot be produced by another substance". (Spinoza 2000, 78)
7
"Each attribute of one substance must be conceived through itself". (Spinoza 2000, 81)
8
“[...] So the modes of each attribute involve the concept of their own attribute, but not of
another”. (Spinoza 2000, 117)
!3
Thus, Spinoza had no need of introducing proposition II.P7 in its negative sense. The
impossibility of a causal interaction between the two attributes of thought and extension
(and the respective modes) was already well established in the Ethics. To be logically
justified, Stumpf argues, proposition II.P7 must then add some new positive content.
As we have seen, this positive content depends on the first part of the causal axiom
(I.A4), i.e. “Knowledge of an effect depends on the knowledge of the cause”. Now, if we
follow the common interpretation and substitute the term “idea” with
“knowledge” (cognitio) in II.P7, Spinoza’s parallelism would come to mean that the
order and connection in our knowledge follows the same order and connection of
things (Stumpf 1919, 6).
From a purely formal point of view, Stumpf admits, this is not inconsistent with the
demonstration II.Dem7. However, this correspondence holds for Spinoza only in the
case of adequate knowledge, proceeding from causes to effects. His parallelism would
then express the correspondence between ideas and states of the human body, since
Spinoza states in II.P36 that "inadequate and confused ideas follow with the same
necessity as adequate, i.e. clear and distinct, ideas" (Spinoza 2000, 144). However,
this is not enough to meet the onerous conditions imposed by the proposition II.P7.
Consequently, Stumpf concludes, “the proud QED would have been omitted not only
for formal reasons, rather, it would be also really out of place” (Stumpf 1919, 7).
Another solution is then necessary for the problem of a positive interpretation of the
parallelistic principle. To this purpose, Stumpf suggests, one must consider the
Scholium (II.S7) to II.P7, where Spinoza writes:
“Here, before we proceed any further, we must recall what we showed above: namely, that
whatever can be perceived by an infinite intellect as constituting the essence of substance
belongs to a unique substance alone, and consequently that thinking substance and extended
substance is one and the same substance, which is understood now under this and now under
that attribute. So also a mode of extension and the idea of that mode is one and the same thing,
but expressed in two ways – which some Hebrews appear to have seen as if through a cloud, in
asserting that God, the intellect of God and the things understood by him are one and the
same”. (Spinoza 2000, 118)
Spinoza unfortunately leaves the identification of these “Hebrews” open 9, so that this
passage always posed an amount of problems to scholars. Be that as it may, Stumpf
argues, if one considers the Scholium seriously, any interpretation in terms of a
psychophysical parallelism is clearly misleading, because Spinoza speaks here of
God’s mind and his ideas, and not of our knowledge. As he notes, Spinoza refers to the
“divine intellect”, stating that both the attributes and their modes behave according to
one single law, because of the unity of the divine substance (Stumpf 1919, 7).
Stumpf points out a double aspect in Spinoza’s theory of substance: on the one hand,
he follows the tradition and gives a “formal” definitions of substance (I.Def3)10; on the
other hand, he is remarkably modern and can almost be regarded as a forerunner of
David Hume:
9
He probably refers to Moses Maimonides. For a discussion and further references, see
Martinelli 2001, 404.
10
"By substance I understand that which is in itself and is conceived through itself" (Spinoza
2000, 75).
!4
“Substance is not, as for earlier philosophers, something that pervades, affects and dominates
the attributes, making up their unity and thereby forcing them to behave consistently, but only
the totality [Gesamtheit] of attributes”. (Stumpf 1919, 8)
As to this crucial question, Stumpf notes, Spinoza allows for an “inner essential
relationship [innerer Wesenszusammenhang] between the attributes”; this relationship
can only exist “in the closest reciprocal inherence [Zusammengehörigkeit] within one
single reality” (Stumpf 1919, 9).
We can now illustrate Stumpf’s interpretation of the positive meaning of the parallelistic
principle that the order and the connection of things and ideas are one and the same
(II.P7). Stumpf's thesis is that the correlation between the two attributes is shaped after
the intentional relationship between act and content. As those wise Hebrews already
saw, this intentional relationship is the one occurring within God’s mind, and in this
sense “God, the intellect of God and the things understood by him” (II.S7) are one and
the same. Thus, the true meaning of Spinoza's parallelism becomes clear in Stumpf’s
eyes:
“The proposition ordo et connexio idearum idem est ac ordo et connexio rerum means that the
order and connection of the divine acts of presentation is the same as that of the divine content
of presentation. It is the parallelism of Aristotelian psychology, transposed to the deity, whose
modes are our individual minds and bodies, and their states”. (Stumpf 1919, 24)
Stumpf introduces some very interesting historical explanations on the development of
this theory. Its origin can be traced back to Plato’s correlation between degrees of
being and degrees of knowledge. Accordingly, Stumpf explains, “differences of
immanent objects proceed parallel to differences in cognitive faculties”. Plato’s
distinction between epistēme and doxa in the Republic, as well as the distinction
between noēsis and dianoia, pistis and eikasia, Stumpf observes, "root in the
difference between what is contemplated directly and what is observed merely in
image” (Stumpf 1919, 10).
However, as Brentano already underlined, the principle of "specification of acts by the
objects" found the largest implementation in Aristotle. Stumpf summarizes: “The
differences in the immanent object therefore determines that of the acts directed
towards them” (Stumpf 1919, 11). Aristotle generalized this principle and applied it
throughout his psychology. Different objects (antikeimena) determine different acts in
the subject (hypokeimenon), and differences in acts allow us to in turn to determine the
different faculties of the human soul: the vegetative, sensitive, and intellectual11. The
core of this doctrine has been later transmitted to Scholastic philosophers, as Stumpf
shows by quoting Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologiae on human and divine
knowledge 12.
Scholastic philosophy is furthermore responsible for introducing a new element,
namely God’s ideas. Through the mediation of Neoplatonism and Augustine, a looser
version of Plato’s theory of ideas comes back into play. As a result, a correspondence
is established between the entities (real or potential) and the ideas in God’s mind. The
following series results:
11
De An., II, 415a, 20-22.
12
“Intellectus noster vel sensus informatur in actu per speciem sensibili vel intelligibili”; “Oportet
quod ratio potentiae diviersificetur ut diversificatur ratio actus. Ratio autem actus diversificatur
secundum diversam rationem objecti” (Summa Theologiae, I, q. 14, a. 2; I, q. 77, a. 3.)
!5
“1. Subjects; 2. Faculties; 3. Acts; 4. Contents = mental objects; 5. Real objects; 6. God’s
Ideas”. (Stumpf 1919, 13)
Accordingly, Scholastic philosophers used to say that a certain object is given
intentionally or objectively in our minds [im Geiste intentionaliter oder objektiv], formally
in realty and eminently in God. Descartes and the young Spinoza, notes Stumpf, still
made use of these expressions. The mental object (# 4 of the above series) is also
called "species" (sensibilis vel intelligiblis), and is linked to the real object (# 5) by
means of causality and similarity. In perceiving and thinking, we are not addressed to
mental objects (# 4), but to real objects (# 5): the species are only that by which we
know, not what we know. So far, at least, the Thomistic scheme. In presenting such a
general survey, Stumpf is clearly aware of the deep differences and the sharp
disputations among scholastic philosophers. He recognizes that the nominalists
refused to adhere to this doctrine. Yet, he notes, even Duns Scotus, Aquinas' great
opponent in many other issues, essentially adhered to this scheme (Stumpf 1919, 15).
In the XVI and XVII century, this doctrine still influenced late scholastic philosophers,
no matter whether catholic and reformed: in Spain (P. Fonseca, F. Toledo and F.
Suarez), as well as in Germany, where Ch. Scheibler influenced the Dutchmen J.
Martini, F. Burgersdijck and his pupil A. Heereboord, whom Spinoza certainly knew.
This is obviously no positive evidence that Spinoza also knew this doctrine; yet also the
contrary cannot be proved. Spinoza, Stumpf concludes, could easily have had some
direct access to those ancient and medieval doctrines (Stumpf 1919, 16).
To sum up, the introduction of parallelism by means of proposition II.P7 is justified in
the Ethics by the need of configuring the simultaneous independence and
interrelationship (not interaction) of the two attributes, extension and thought. To this
aim, is it was quite natural for Spinoza to use the scholastic doctrine of parallelism. As
a result of his general point of view in philosophy, he simply considered the traditional
scheme inversely. He started from God’s mind (# 6), the last element in the abovementioned "scholastic scheme”, but the first according to the nature of the thing itself.
Moreover, Spinoza’s particular philosophical approach introduces a “powerful
simplification” in this scheme:
“As a result of his pantheistic view, there is only one subject of all states: God. Spinoza
eliminates the faculties of the soul, because the only things that we know are ultimately just real
acts [...]. At the other end of the series, real things and God’s ideas merge into one, because
things exist only as contents of divine thought, in the same manner that acts of thought exist
only as acts of this divine thought. This leaves only the central terms of the entire pattern: the
distinction between the immanent acts and objects, but referring to God, whose modes they
are”. (Stumpf 1919, 19)
Following Stumpf’s lecture, Spinoza’s parallelism is then – in its origins and its meaning
– wholly independent of modern psychophysical parallelism. Relying upon an accurate
historical analysis, Stumpf unveils it as the intentionality theory originally defended by
Aristotle and held until the late Scholastic. In his plain words:
“Parallelism between the modes of the extension and those of thought is thus nothing else than
parallelism between the immanent objects and the acts directed upon them, which has been
taught since Aristotle”. (Stumpf 1919, 19)
The infinity of attributes
!6
If one accepts this suggestion, parallelism is the expression of the intentionality of
God’s mind, while the human mind (together with its intentionality), is just one of the
modes of God’s thought. In the Scholium II.S7, Spinoza writes:
“So whether we conceive Nature under the attribute of extension, or under the attribute of
thought, or under any other attribute whatsoever, we shall find one and the same order, or, one
and the same connection of causes; that is, we shall find that the same things follow
reciprocally”. (Spinoza 2000, 118, italics added)
By this, Spinoza introduces a remarkable shift in the usual understanding of the
intentionality principle. Even though the human mind can only conceive of thought and
extension, God’s attributes must indeed be infinite in number. As a result, intentionality
must be understood as an “intimate essential relationship” applying to any infinite
attribute that one must ascribe to God’s power. Properly speaking, intentionality is then
not anymore a special property of the mental. From Spinoza’s point of view, the
intentional relationship of (divine) thought and extension counts as an example –
though obviously a very special one, being the only example that a human mind could
mention.
The above-mentioned Scholium ends with the following words:
“[...] as long as things are conceived as modes of thinking, we must explain the whole of Nature,
i.e. the connection of causes, through the attribute of thought alone. Again, in so far as things
are considered as modes of extension, the order of the whole of Nature must be explained
through the attribute of extension alone; and I understand the same for the other attributes. So
God is truly the cause of things as they are in themselves in so far as he consists of infinite
attributes – something which I cannot explain more clearly at present”. (Spinoza 2000, 118)
Because of the infinity of attributes, the parallelistic principle undergoes what Stumpf
calls a tremendous expansion (Stumpf 1919, 7). For this reason, the problem is
attentively considered in the second study, entitled Die unzähligen Attribute. In this
respect, the two published Spinozastudien form a cohesive whole, whose thesis
corroborate each other.
Of course, the main problem is that of explaining how one should conceive of, and
describe, these infinite attributes, since a human mind cannot have any idea of what
they might be. Stumpf widely discusses the main scholarly interpretations of his time
concerning this point. First, he explains, the infinity of attributes is not a mere potential
one. This followed from the idealistic interpretation inaugurated by Hegel and
supported among others by J.E. Erdmann. In their opinion, attributes are just subjective
characteristics of the human mind, insofar as it knows the substance. Yet, this cannot
be admitted: the reality of all attributes is independent of the human mind knowing
them, and is rather grounded in the nature of God himself. Their infinity is therefore
properly actual. Stumpf also denies that the infinity of attributes is the result of a
recursive process conducted in infinitum from the idea, the idea of the idea, and so
forth, resulting in progressively higher levels of thought (Stumpf 1919, 43-44).
What kind of presentation does Stumpf propose then? He admits that the available
textual evidence does not allow a definite and final solution for the problem. In spite of
this, one can provide a set of hypotheses, consistent with the doctrine of the infinite
attributes: "the philosopher must be allowed to penetrate the systems of philosophy a
bit deeper than the documents allow, taken for themselves” (Stumpf 1919, 39).
Stumpf first introduces the mathematical notion of “multiplicity” (Mannigfaltigkeit)
(Stumpf 1919, 47). This concept, borrowed from Riemann’s theory, forms the core of
Stumpf’s theory of space. Space is not directly bound to our intuition, but represents a
!7
rationalistic construct, bound to certain general formal rules. Since his first published
book in 1873 Stumpf had refused both the Kantian approach and Lotze’s solution in
terms of local signs. Presentations of space originate from what we perceive, but in an
indirect way. Space is neither a priori, nor empirically constructed. One needs a certain
experience to perform all the abstraction needed to achieve a spatial presentation.
Accordingly, geometry does not need to be intuitive in Stumpf’s view: its objects are
rather constructed by means of mere definitions, given within a continuous
multiplicity.13
Anyway, space is not the only kind of multiplicity recognized by Stumpf. Also the
timeline, musical pitch, the intensive degrees of sensation, multiple colors systems like
black/white or red/yellow, and so on, can be considered as multiplicities of different kind
(Stumpf 1919, 47). As in the case of space, these multiplicities are obtained by means
of abstraction from the sensory world; yet, in these cases we perform our abstractions
from other properties of the sensorial continuum. Doing so, we find special conditions
and restrictions for each new multiplicity. Stumpf’s arguments on these matters are
among his most interesting contribution to the theory of sensation, both in the beloved
field of tonal perception and in that of visual experience 14.
Let us now go back to Spinoza’s infinite attributes. The notion of an unknown attribute,
analogous to spatial extension but provided with different features, appears now more
conceivable. Rather, ordinary experience provides us with several similar analogs of
spatial extension.
One could also apply a similar methodology starting from the attribute of thought and
obtain new, different “multiplicities”, resulting in infinite mental-like attributes. Besides
presentations, which we know empirically through introspection, and more generally
besides any thought, there might be then
“innumerable other forms of the so-called immanent existence of objects, i.e. of the intentional
relation, of that peculiar, indefinable relationship between act and object, belonging to all
conscious functions”. (Stumpf 1919, 47)
There might be also infinite thought-like states (psychoide Zustände, as Stumpf calls
them), whose characteristic would be, again, intentionality.
Interestingly, Stumpf suggests to generalize the scholastic terminology and proposes to
speak here of “intentions” (Intentionen) (Stumpf 1919, 48). Even in this case,
experience offers some example: in a clear Aristotelian vein, animal psychism or
vegetative activity could be understood as analogs of human psychical life. As for all
previous analogies drawn from experience, these are clearly only heuristic examples,
which do not rigorously define additional attributes.
These infinite “intentions” (analogous to thought), would be well distinct from the
previously indicated “multiplicities” (analogous to space) – which are not at all
intentional. In force of the very idea of intentionality, however, all members of these
infinite series would be connected to each other to form pairs. Each “multiplicity” would
be the object (Gegenstand) of a certain “intention”, thus corresponding to it.
“Thought and extension, as we know them, and all their modes, and therefore also our minds
and our bodies are just a special case of this universal correlation [Zuordnung]”. (Stumpf 1919,
49)
13
Cf. Stumpf 1873; 1906a, 78 ff.
14
Cf. Stumpf 1883, 1890; 1917.
!8
Stumpf’s concludes that Spinoza’s use of the general terms idea and res in the
proposition II.P7 “the order and the connection of ideas is the same as the order and
the connection of things” may allude to these regularly paired series. This explains why,
in the Scholium II.S7, Spinoza says “et idem de aliis attributis intelligo”: the two known
attributes of thought and extension would be “the prototypes for all others”. (Stumpf
1919, 49).
A confrontation with Brentano and Husserl
As far as Stumpf’s interpretation of Spinoza is concerned, there is little more to be
added. Yet, in the Spinozastudien Stumpf introduces some interesting remarks
concerning some of his contemporaries. His observations deserve special attention. In
the section devoted to the reconstruction of historical vicissitudes of Aristotelian
parallelism, i.e. of the specification of all acts by their objects, Stumpf reminds us that
this principle is still defended today:
“So Franz Brentano, who took his first steps from Aristotle, has taken up again his distinction of
psychic activity (of the act) by the immanent object and has employed it as the main
distinguishing feature of psychic phenomena if compared with physical ones, and has based his
classification of psychical activities upon this «relationship to an object» [Beziehung auf ein
Objekt]”. (Stumpf 1919, 17)
This is the actual meaning and contest of Brentano’s doctrine of intentional inexistence, as expressed in his Psychology from an empirical standpoint (Brentano
1997, 88). Brentano admits the intentional parallelism of the two series of acts and
mental contents, consistently recognized in philosophical tradition. Stumpf explains:
“according to Brentano, a fully parallelism holds between the immanent object and the
act directed towards it, first in terms of their intensity”. Arguing against the hypothesis
of unconscious mental states, Brentano observed that the intensity of mental
presentation is always equal to the intensity of the represented content. This holds,
notes Stumpf, also for internal conscience “i.e. the presentation, whose object is a
psychical activity (Spinoza’s idea mentis)” (Stumpf 1919, 17). Also Brentano’s
explanation of the sensed spatial extension, and then of multiple qualities, is a
consequence of the Aristotelian theorem of specification of the act by the object. Lotze
also adopted the same principle concerning sensations, though he denied – as Stumpf
notes – any difference in intensity as far as presentations (Vorstellungen) are
concerned15 . The “principle of parallelism in the ancient sense” thus reappears within
the theories of some of the shrewdest psychologists of the time. With this, its
correctness “is certainly not proven”; at least, it can be assumed that it appeared in this
light even to Spinoza (Stumpf 1919, 18). Because of a generalized discredit of the
scholastic way of philosophizing, this principle had been forgotten thereafter. Yet, its
15
Stumpf thinks that Brentano, in spite of many other changes, still held this doctrine in his later
writings. He quotes a passage from his Untersuchungen zur Sinnepsychologie where the equal
intensity of sensation and the sensed is asserted. Actually, at least after 1911 Brentano
maintained the parallelism of intensity for sensations alone whereas, in an Appendix to the
second edition of his Psychology from empirical standpoint, he asserts that intellectual
presentations (e.g. that if the number three) totally lack intensity, thus correcting his previous
error (Brentano 1997, 151). Yet, Stumpf credits Lotze and not Brentano of having denied
intensities to all presentations, allowing for it only within sensibility. Anyway, Lotze had
formulated these views in the Microkosmus and the Metaphysik, many years before the second
edition of Brentano’s Psychology. Stumpf also says (1919, 18) that he once heard Brentano
refer to Lotze concerning this point.
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non-dogmatic rediscovery by Lotze and Brentano yielded a great renewal in
philosophy.
In particular, it helps fighting the modern, vulgar version of parallelism, exemplarily
illustrated by Fechner’s psychophysics. Stumpf sharply distinguishes the transcendent
parallelism of psychophysics from the immanent parallelism of Spinoza. The former
should be regarded as a mere hypothesis correlating two sets of facts: conscience on
the one hand, physical processes on the other. In Spinoza’s view, both members of
these two groups, as well as their relationship are rather “immediately given to
consciousness: the res as intuitive contents of consciousness, the idea as the
corresponding acts of consciousness”. In this sense, Stumpf adds:
“His law of parallelism is purely a matter of descriptive psychology (Husserl would say a matter
of phenomenology, since that law is based a priori through «intuition of essence»)”. (Stumpf
1919, 34)
This opens the question of Stumpf’s idea of phenomenology and his relationship with
Husserl16 . As he had already done previously (Stumpf 1906a, 26 ff), in his
Erkenntnislehre Stumpf allows for a "regional phenomenology", establishing a priori
"eidetic laws", while Husserl’s “pure phenomenology” is sharply labelled as a mere
illusion, a "phenomenology without phenomena" (Stumpf 1939, 192). One can actually
aim at establishing a science of "universal axioms", yet these axioms are the wellknown "logical axioms". Accordingly, there is no special phenomenological work to be
done concerning them (Stumpf 1939, 189-190). Insofar as phenomenology remains a
"regional" and then legitimate discipline, its principles coincide with those of descriptive
psychology.
Still, one could argue that phenomenology, unlike descriptive psychology, devotes itself
to "the infinitely rich research field of eidetic noemata, and the axioms related to that".
However, Stumpf objects, Husserl himself insists on the parallelism between noesis
and noema. Clearly, the Spinozian problem of parallelism becomes here relevant to the
discussion of Husserl’s phenomenology. In support of this observation, Stumpf (1939,
195) quotes from § 88 of Husserl’s Ideas pertaining to a pure phenomenology and to a
phenomenological philosophy, where Husserl affirms
“Corresponding in every case to the multiplicity of Data pertaining to the really inherent noetic
content, there is a multiplicity of Data, demonstrable in actual pure intuition, in a correlative
«noematic content», or, in sort, in the «noema» […]”. (Husserl 1983, 214)
Accordingly, the description in the noetic sphere must be eo ipso valid in the noematic
sphere.
Regarding this point, attention must be drawn to a very interesting footnote in Stumpf’s
Erkenntnislehre:
“According to Husserl, the noetic and the noematic are related to each other like the attributes
thought and extension in Spinoza: «una eademque res, sed duobus modis expressa». As for
Spinoza all laws of nature are also laws of the mind, the same happens for noetic laws, which
are also noematic. One could even show that this is something more than a mere analogy, i.e.
that thought and extension are conceived by Spinoza as acts and contents of the divine
thought, and that the doctrine of parallelism between acts and contents of consciousness dates
back to a rule constantly recurring in psychology since Aristotle: a rule that Spinoza, like many
other things, derived from his scholastic studies”. (Stumpf 1939, 196)
16
See Rollinger 2000, Fisette 2009.
!10
With this, Stumpf clearly summarizes in the Erkenntnislehre the main results of his
essays on Spinoza. No doubt that this is significant as to his position towards Husserl.
However, one must carefully interpret the sense of this passage.
At a first glance, Stumpf’s last quoted reference to Spinoza in the Erkenntnislehre
might seem to weaken his severe criticism of Husserl. It could sound as an appeal to a
common philosophical tradition, i.e. the "intentional" parallelism in the Aristotelianscholastic tradition, recently renewed by Brentano. The simultaneous insistence on a
possible reading of Husserl's phenomenology as descriptive psychology (already
present in the Spinozastudien) might then suggest that Stumpf, while denouncing
Husserl’s heterodox developments, would also allow for a possible reconciliation on
account of the common matrix17 .
Yet, a closer view shows quite the opposite to be true. Stumpf clearly rejects the
traditional doctrine of intentionality and the consequent rigid parallelism between act
and content. In the Spinozastudien he outlines his position as follows:
“The author himself actually favored the distinction between phenomena and psychical
functions, which is essentially tantamount to the difference between act and content [...]. Yet, a
parallelism of the two elements did not seem acceptable to me. Instead, I could establish this
distinction only upon their reciprocal (within certain limits) independent variability [...]”. (Stumpf
1919, 36-37)
Stumpf clearly refers to his essay Erscheinungen und psychische Funktionen (1906).
Far from subscribing parallelism, Stumpf asserts here the “logical separability” and the
“mutual independent variability” of phenomena and psychical functions (Stumpf 1906,
10 ff, 15 ff). Since these two elements are separable by means of abstraction (like e.g.
extension and color), there is no logical contradiction in assuming a phenomenon that
is not the content of some psychical function: in short, being-represented is not a
characteristic of phenomena. Stumpf adds:
“Spinoza saw this [...] clearer than Berkeley and taught that each of both attributes, extension
and thought, «must be conceived through itself» 18. Instead of extension and thought we just say
more generally (but conform to Descartes’ and Spinoza’s intentions) phenomena and psychical
functions” (Stumpf 1906, 14)19
Stumpf goes on:
“Actually, on this point, neither Spinoza nor anybody thereafter really dropped Descartes’
dualism. Any actual material given to us exhibit at root a double face. Whatever one may say
about the unity of substance and of reality, on panpsychism on idealism and universal: that
duality cannot be canceled”. (Stumpf 1906, 14)
To be sure, Stumpf is not a Spinozian philosopher. He endeavors to circumvent
metaphysical dualism, yet without abandoning the necessary bipolarity of phenomena
and psychological functions, which he doesn’t submit to a parallelistic principle in the
sense of Spinoza. Stumpf’s position could be labelled as a phenomenological or
Husserl commented on Spinozastudien in the draft of a unsent letter addressed to Stumpf in
1919 (Husserl 1994, 174 ff). As D. Fisette (2009, 188) has pointed out, Husserl’s own
interpretation of Spinoza could mitigate some aspects of Stumpf’s criticism. Given its
importance, the question deserves a separate analysis.
17
18
Stumpf quotes from I.P10 (Spinoza 2000, 81).
19
In a footnote, Stumpf explains that he does not consider here the unity of substance: since
Spinoza knows only one substance, this is not a condition for the principle under discussion.
!11
intentional dualism. This explains his interests in the philosophy of Spinoza and justifies
his abandonment of the principle of intentionality. At least, Stumpf refuses both
Brentano’s and Husserl’s version of intentionality. The former is unacceptable because
of the postulate of the evidence of internal perception. Since the first volume of the
Tonpsychologie Stumpf refused this postulate (Stumpf 1883, 22), although his personal
devotion towards Brentano keeps him far from a direct polemic on this point (and so
even later, despite increasing divergencies concerning feelings, tonal fusion and other
important topics). Nevertheless, both Meinong in his review of Stumpf’s work and later
a true orthodox brentanian like Kastil clearly recognized this divergence 20. As we have
seen, Stumpf also refuses the approach of Husserl, who leaves the door open to an
unacceptable comeback of speculative attitudes.
Turning finally back to Spinoza, Stumpf completely absolves him from the charge of
inaugurating the naive monism of modern parallelism. At the same time, Spinoza
escapes dualism because of his adoption of the traditional, immanent parallelism
between acts and contents. However, on Stumpf’s view, this is scarcely a gain:
“Thus, if one can acquit Spinoza of dualism on account of his Aristotelian-Scholastic
psychology, however, the difficulties return on a different and deeper place”. (Stumpf 1919, 37)
In short, Stumpf refuses the scholastic heritage of Spinoza’s thought, i.e. intentionality
as immanent parallelism, insofar as it purports a rigid correspondence of the two terms
and then a tendency to monism. Nonetheless, after his reading in the Spinozastudien
he credits Spinoza not to have suppressed dualism, but rather to have infinitely
multiplied it by means of the hypothesis of the infinite attributes. On the contrary, if one
reads Spinoza more traditionally as a consistent monist, Stumpf radically diverges from
him.
Stumpf’s phenomenological dualism means that the duplicity we perceive within reality
cannot ever be suppressed (rather, perhaps multiplied). In the opening speech to the
Congress of psychologists in München in 1896, after a sharp attack on Ernst Mach,
whose “sensualist monism” finally “resolves into nothing” (Stumpf 1896 85), Stumpf
leaves no doubt on this general philosophical attitude:
“According to our previous considerations, we cannot avoid a dualism in the characteristics of
reality: it would always reoccur somewhere, in some other form. For those who incline to
nourish keen dreams, one could think to overcome it insofar as one admits, besides the two
only forms of reality which are given to us, infinite other forms: maybe simultaneously existing,
maybe generating one another in a temporal development, just like the spiritual already
emerged from the physical. Spinoza already conceived the two attributes not as the only ones
existing, but simply as the only ones accessible to our knowledge among the infinite attributes
that make up the essence of God, or the World. After all, if one is diffident towards such highranging metaphysic speculations, the mere name dualism should not bother us too much. For
many people, this name seems to sound as the worst invective, by which that they would never
like to be hit: they like the most pitiful confusion better than a dualism. I can find in it nothing so
horrible, provided that the unity of the common effect and of the supreme laws is granted”.
(Stumpf 1896, 92-93)
Insisting on the discrepancies between the two terms of the intentional relation as well
as on its formal character, potentially allowing applications of intentionality even outside
psychism, Stumpf’s quite original intentionality theory perfectly supports this
philosophical tenet, showing his independence as a philosopher from both Brentano
and Husserl.
20
Meinong 1885, 130; Kastil 1948, 198. On the whole question see Martinelli 2009, xxii-xxiii.
!12
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